Information about Zidovudine
Zidovudine (INN) or azidothymidine (AZT) (also called ZDV) is an antiretroviral drug, the first approved for treatment of HIV. It is also sold under the names Retrovir® and Retrovis®, and as an ingredient in Combivir® and Trizivir®. It is an analog of thymidine.
A placebo-controlled randomized trial of AZT was subsequently conducted by Burroughs-Wellcome, in which it was shown that AZT could prolong the life of patients with AIDS. Burroughs Wellcome Co. filed for a patent on AZT in 1985. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the drug (via the then-new FDA accelerated approval system) for use against HIV, AIDS, and AIDS Related Complex (ARC, a now-defunct medical term for pre-AIDS illness) on March 20 1987, and then as a preventive treatment in 1990. It was initially administered in much higher dosages than today, typically 400 mg every four hours (even at night). However, the unavailability at that time of alternatives to treat AIDS affected the risk/benefit ratio, with the certain toxicity of HIV infection outweighing the risk of drug toxicity. One of AZT's side effects includes anemia, a common complaint in early trials.
Modern treatment regimens typically use lower dosages (e.g. 300 mg) two to three times a day. As of 1996, AZT, like other antiretroviral drugs, is almost always used as part of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). That is, it is combined with other drugs in order to prevent mutation of HIV into an AZT-resistant form.[1][2]
The crystal structure of AZT was reported by Alan Howie (Aberdeen University) in 1988.[3] In the solid state AZT forms a hydrogen bond network. Note that AZT is based upon a sugar.
AZT may be used in combination with other antiretroviral medications to substantially reduce the risk of HIV infection following a significant exposure to the virus (such as a needle-stick injury involving blood or body fluids from an individual known to be infected with HIV).[4]
AZT is also recommended as part of a regimen to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV during pregnancy, labor and delivery.[5] With no treatment, approximately 25% of infants whose mothers are infected with HIV will become infected. AZT has been shown to reduce this risk to approximately 8% when given in a three-part regimen during pregnancy, delivery and to the infant for 6 weeks after birth.[6] Use of appropriate combinations of antiretroviral medications and cesarean section when necessary can further reduce mother-child transmission of HIV to 1-2%.
Like other reverse transcriptase inhibitors, AZT works by inhibiting the action of reverse transcriptase, the enzyme that HIV uses to make a DNA copy of its RNA. The viral double-stranded DNA is subsequently spliced into the DNA of a target cell, where it is called a provirus.[8][9][10]
The azido group increases the lipophilic nature of AZT, allowing it to cross cell membranes easily by diffusion and thereby also to cross the blood-brain barrier. Cellular enzymes convert AZT into the effective 5'-triphosphate form. Studies have shown that the termination of the formed DNA chains is the specific factor in the inhibitory effect.
The triphosphate form also has some ability to inhibit cellular DNA polymerase, which is used by normal cells as part of cell division.[11][12][13] However, AZT has a 100- to 300-fold greater affinity for the HIV reverse transcriptase, as compared to the human DNA polymerase, accounting for its selective antiviral activity.[14] A special kind of cellular DNA polymerase that replicates the DNA in mitochondria is relatively more sensitive to inhibition by AZT, and this accounts for certain toxicities such as damage to cardiac and other muscles (also called myositis).[15][16][17][18][19]
However, the patent expired in 2005 (placing AZT in the public domain), allowing other drug companies to manufacture and market generic AZT without having to pay GlaxoSmithKline any royalties. The U.S. FDA has since approved four generic forms of AZT for sale in the U.S.
23. Katzung, Bertram G. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 10th edition. New York: McGraw, Hill Lange Medical, 2007, pp.536-541
Classification & external resources
ICD-10 B20-B24
ICD-9 042 - 044
..... Click the link for more information.
History
Zidovudine was the first drug approved for the treatment of AIDS and HIV infection. Jerome Horwitz of Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute and Wayne State University School of Medicine first synthesized AZT in 1964, under a US National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant. It was originally intended to treat cancer, but failed to show efficacy and had an unacceptably high side effect profile. The drug then faded from view until February 1985, when Samuel Broder, Hiroaki Mitsuya, and Robert Yarchoan, three scientists in the National Cancer Institute (NCI), collaborating with Janet Rideout and several other scientists at Burroughs Wellcome (now GlaxoSmithKline), started working on it as an AIDS drug. After showing that this drug was an effective agent against HIV in vitro, the team conducted the initial clinical trial that provided evidence that it could increase CD4 counts in AIDS patients.A placebo-controlled randomized trial of AZT was subsequently conducted by Burroughs-Wellcome, in which it was shown that AZT could prolong the life of patients with AIDS. Burroughs Wellcome Co. filed for a patent on AZT in 1985. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the drug (via the then-new FDA accelerated approval system) for use against HIV, AIDS, and AIDS Related Complex (ARC, a now-defunct medical term for pre-AIDS illness) on March 20 1987, and then as a preventive treatment in 1990. It was initially administered in much higher dosages than today, typically 400 mg every four hours (even at night). However, the unavailability at that time of alternatives to treat AIDS affected the risk/benefit ratio, with the certain toxicity of HIV infection outweighing the risk of drug toxicity. One of AZT's side effects includes anemia, a common complaint in early trials.
Modern treatment regimens typically use lower dosages (e.g. 300 mg) two to three times a day. As of 1996, AZT, like other antiretroviral drugs, is almost always used as part of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). That is, it is combined with other drugs in order to prevent mutation of HIV into an AZT-resistant form.[1][2]
The crystal structure of AZT was reported by Alan Howie (Aberdeen University) in 1988.[3] In the solid state AZT forms a hydrogen bond network. Note that AZT is based upon a sugar.
Prophylaxis
)
A crystal of AZT, viewed under polarized light
AZT is also recommended as part of a regimen to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV during pregnancy, labor and delivery.[5] With no treatment, approximately 25% of infants whose mothers are infected with HIV will become infected. AZT has been shown to reduce this risk to approximately 8% when given in a three-part regimen during pregnancy, delivery and to the infant for 6 weeks after birth.[6] Use of appropriate combinations of antiretroviral medications and cesarean section when necessary can further reduce mother-child transmission of HIV to 1-2%.
Side effects
Common side effects of AZT include nausea, headache, changes in body fat, and discoloration of fingernails and toenails. More severe side effects include anaemia and bone marrow suppression, which can be overcome using erythropoietin or darbepoetin treatments.23 These unwanted side effects might be caused by the sensitivity of the γ-DNA polymerase in the cell mitochondria. AZT has been shown to work additively or synergistically with many anti-HIV agents; however, acyclovir and ribavirin decrease the antiviral effect of AZT. Drugs that inhibit hepatic glucuronidation, such as indomethacin, acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) and trimethoprim, decrease the elimination rate and increase the toxicity.[7]Viral resistance
AZT does not destroy the HIV infection, but only delays the progression of the disease and the replication of virus, even at very high doses. During prolonged AZT treatment HIV has the ability to gain an increased resistance to AZT by mutation of the reverse transcriptase. A study showed that AZT could not impede the resumption of virus production, and eventually cells treated with AZT produced viruses as much as the untreated cells. So as to slow the development of resistance, it is generally recommended that AZT be given in combination with another reverse transcriptase inhibitor and an antiretroviral from another group, such as a protease inhibitor or a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor.Mode of action
)
AZT in oral and injectable form
The azido group increases the lipophilic nature of AZT, allowing it to cross cell membranes easily by diffusion and thereby also to cross the blood-brain barrier. Cellular enzymes convert AZT into the effective 5'-triphosphate form. Studies have shown that the termination of the formed DNA chains is the specific factor in the inhibitory effect.
The triphosphate form also has some ability to inhibit cellular DNA polymerase, which is used by normal cells as part of cell division.[11][12][13] However, AZT has a 100- to 300-fold greater affinity for the HIV reverse transcriptase, as compared to the human DNA polymerase, accounting for its selective antiviral activity.[14] A special kind of cellular DNA polymerase that replicates the DNA in mitochondria is relatively more sensitive to inhibition by AZT, and this accounts for certain toxicities such as damage to cardiac and other muscles (also called myositis).[15][16][17][18][19]
Controversy
AZT has been the target of some controversy due to the nature of the patent process.[20]Patent issues
In 1991, Public Citizen filed a lawsuit claiming that the AZT/Zidovudine patent was invalid. The United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruled in 1992 in favour of Burroughs-Wellcome, the licensee of the patent.[21] The court ruled that the challenge of the citizen group was not the correct approach to evaluate the underlying validity of the patent which was already being litigated in another suit. [22] In 2002, another lawsuit was filed over the patent by the AIDS Healthcare Foundation.However, the patent expired in 2005 (placing AZT in the public domain), allowing other drug companies to manufacture and market generic AZT without having to pay GlaxoSmithKline any royalties. The U.S. FDA has since approved four generic forms of AZT for sale in the U.S.
Footnotes
1. ^ De Clercq E (1994). "HIV resistance to reverse transcriptase inhibitors.". Biochem Pharmacol 47 (2): 155-69. PMID 7508227.
2. ^ Yarchoan R, Mitsuya H, Broder S (1988). "AIDS therapies.". Sci Am 259 (4): 110-9. PMID 3072667.
3. ^ Dr. Alan Howie. Dr Alan Howie. University of Aberdeen. Retrieved on 2006-01-18.
4. ^ Updated U.S. Public Health Service Guidelines for the Management of Occupational Exposures to HIV. Retrieved on 2006-03-29.
5. ^ Recommendations for Use of Antiretroviral Drugs in Pregnant HIV-1-Infected Women for Maternal Health. Retrieved on 2006-03-29.
6. ^ Connor E, Sperling R, Gelber R, Kiselev P, Scott G, O'Sullivan M, VanDyke R, Bey M, Shearer W, Jacobson R (1994). "Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group.". N Engl J Med 331 (18): 1173-80. PMID 7935654.
7. ^ ZIDOVUDINE (AZT) - ORAL (Retrovir) side effects, medical uses, and drug interactions. MedicineNet. Retrieved on 2006-01-09.
8. ^ Mitsuya H, Yarchoan R, Broder S (1990). "Molecular targets for AIDS therapy.". Science 249 (4976): 1533-44. PMID 1699273.
9. ^ Mitsuya H, Weinhold K, Furman P, St Clair M, Lehrman S, Gallo R, Bolognesi D, Barry D, Broder S (1985). "3'-Azido-3'-deoxythymidine (BW A509U): an antiviral agent that inhibits the infectivity and cytopathic effect of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus in vitro.". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 82 (20): 7096-100. PMID 2413459.
10. ^ Yarchoan R, Klecker R, Weinhold K, Markham P, Lyerly H, Durack D, Gelmann E, Lehrman S, Blum R, Barry D (1986). "Administration of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine, an inhibitor of HTLV-III/LAV replication, to patients with AIDS or AIDS-related complex.". Lancet 1 (8481): 575-80. PMID 2869302.
11. ^ Furman P, Fyfe J, St Clair M, Weinhold K, Rideout J, Freeman G, Lehrman S, Bolognesi D, Broder S, Mitsuya H (1986). "Phosphorylation of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine and selective interaction of the 5'-triphosphate with human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase.". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 83 (21): 8333-7. PMID 2430286.
12. ^ Mitsuya H, Weinhold K, Furman P, St Clair M, Lehrman S, Gallo R, Bolognesi D, Barry D, Broder S (1985). "3'-Azido-3'-deoxythymidine (BW A509U): an antiviral agent that inhibits the infectivity and cytopathic effect of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus in vitro.". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 82 (20): 7096-100. PMID 2413459.
13. ^ Plessinger M, Miller R. "Effects of zidovudine (AZT) and dideoxyinosine (ddI) on human trophoblast cells.". Reprod Toxicol 13 (6): 537-46. PMID 10613402.
14. ^ Mitsuya H, Weinhold KJ, Furman PA, et al: 3'-azido-3;-deoxythymidine (BW A509U): an antiviral agent that inhibits the infectivity and cytopathic effect of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus in vitro. Med Sci 1985; 82:7096-7100.
15. ^ Collins M, Sondel N, Cesar D, Hellerstein M (2004). "Effect of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors on mitochondrial DNA synthesis in rats and humans.". J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 37 (1): 1132-9. PMID 15319672.
16. ^ Parker W, White E, Shaddix S, Ross L, Buckheit R, Germany J, Secrist J, Vince R, Shannon W (1991). "Mechanism of inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase and human DNA polymerases alpha, beta, and gamma by the 5'-triphosphates of carbovir, 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine, 2',3'-dideoxyguanosine and 3'-deoxythymidine. A novel RNA template for the evaluation of antiretroviral drugs.". J Biol Chem 266 (3): 1754-62. PMID 1703154.
17. ^ Rang H.P., Dale M.M., Ritter J.M. (1995). Pharmacology, 3rd edition, Pearson Professional Ltd.
18. ^ Balzarini J, Naesens L, Aquaro S, Knispel T, Perno C, De Clercq E, Meier C (1999). "Intracellular metabolism of CycloSaligenyl 3'-azido-2', 3'-dideoxythymidine monophosphate, a prodrug of 3'-azido-2', 3'-dideoxythymidine (zidovudine).". Mol Pharmacol 56 (6): 1354-61. PMID 10570065.
19. ^ Yarchoan R, Mitsuya H, Myers C, Broder S (1989). "Clinical pharmacology of 3'-azido-2',3'-dideoxythymidine (zidovudine) and related dideoxynucleosides.". N Engl J Med 321 (11): 726-38. PMID 2671731.
20. ^ The Best Democracy Money Can Buy by Greg Palast (2002)
21. ^ People with Aids Health Group v. Burroughs Wellcome Co., 1992 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 578
22. ^ US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. Burroughs Wellcome Co. v. Barr Laboratories, 40 F.3d 1223 (Fed. Cir. 1994). University of Houston -- Health Law and Policy Institute. Retrieved on 2007-02-28.
2. ^ Yarchoan R, Mitsuya H, Broder S (1988). "AIDS therapies.". Sci Am 259 (4): 110-9. PMID 3072667.
3. ^ Dr. Alan Howie. Dr Alan Howie. University of Aberdeen. Retrieved on 2006-01-18.
4. ^ Updated U.S. Public Health Service Guidelines for the Management of Occupational Exposures to HIV. Retrieved on 2006-03-29.
5. ^ Recommendations for Use of Antiretroviral Drugs in Pregnant HIV-1-Infected Women for Maternal Health. Retrieved on 2006-03-29.
6. ^ Connor E, Sperling R, Gelber R, Kiselev P, Scott G, O'Sullivan M, VanDyke R, Bey M, Shearer W, Jacobson R (1994). "Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group.". N Engl J Med 331 (18): 1173-80. PMID 7935654.
7. ^ ZIDOVUDINE (AZT) - ORAL (Retrovir) side effects, medical uses, and drug interactions. MedicineNet. Retrieved on 2006-01-09.
8. ^ Mitsuya H, Yarchoan R, Broder S (1990). "Molecular targets for AIDS therapy.". Science 249 (4976): 1533-44. PMID 1699273.
9. ^ Mitsuya H, Weinhold K, Furman P, St Clair M, Lehrman S, Gallo R, Bolognesi D, Barry D, Broder S (1985). "3'-Azido-3'-deoxythymidine (BW A509U): an antiviral agent that inhibits the infectivity and cytopathic effect of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus in vitro.". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 82 (20): 7096-100. PMID 2413459.
10. ^ Yarchoan R, Klecker R, Weinhold K, Markham P, Lyerly H, Durack D, Gelmann E, Lehrman S, Blum R, Barry D (1986). "Administration of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine, an inhibitor of HTLV-III/LAV replication, to patients with AIDS or AIDS-related complex.". Lancet 1 (8481): 575-80. PMID 2869302.
11. ^ Furman P, Fyfe J, St Clair M, Weinhold K, Rideout J, Freeman G, Lehrman S, Bolognesi D, Broder S, Mitsuya H (1986). "Phosphorylation of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine and selective interaction of the 5'-triphosphate with human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase.". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 83 (21): 8333-7. PMID 2430286.
12. ^ Mitsuya H, Weinhold K, Furman P, St Clair M, Lehrman S, Gallo R, Bolognesi D, Barry D, Broder S (1985). "3'-Azido-3'-deoxythymidine (BW A509U): an antiviral agent that inhibits the infectivity and cytopathic effect of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus in vitro.". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 82 (20): 7096-100. PMID 2413459.
13. ^ Plessinger M, Miller R. "Effects of zidovudine (AZT) and dideoxyinosine (ddI) on human trophoblast cells.". Reprod Toxicol 13 (6): 537-46. PMID 10613402.
14. ^ Mitsuya H, Weinhold KJ, Furman PA, et al: 3'-azido-3;-deoxythymidine (BW A509U): an antiviral agent that inhibits the infectivity and cytopathic effect of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus in vitro. Med Sci 1985; 82:7096-7100.
15. ^ Collins M, Sondel N, Cesar D, Hellerstein M (2004). "Effect of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors on mitochondrial DNA synthesis in rats and humans.". J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 37 (1): 1132-9. PMID 15319672.
16. ^ Parker W, White E, Shaddix S, Ross L, Buckheit R, Germany J, Secrist J, Vince R, Shannon W (1991). "Mechanism of inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase and human DNA polymerases alpha, beta, and gamma by the 5'-triphosphates of carbovir, 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine, 2',3'-dideoxyguanosine and 3'-deoxythymidine. A novel RNA template for the evaluation of antiretroviral drugs.". J Biol Chem 266 (3): 1754-62. PMID 1703154.
17. ^ Rang H.P., Dale M.M., Ritter J.M. (1995). Pharmacology, 3rd edition, Pearson Professional Ltd.
18. ^ Balzarini J, Naesens L, Aquaro S, Knispel T, Perno C, De Clercq E, Meier C (1999). "Intracellular metabolism of CycloSaligenyl 3'-azido-2', 3'-dideoxythymidine monophosphate, a prodrug of 3'-azido-2', 3'-dideoxythymidine (zidovudine).". Mol Pharmacol 56 (6): 1354-61. PMID 10570065.
19. ^ Yarchoan R, Mitsuya H, Myers C, Broder S (1989). "Clinical pharmacology of 3'-azido-2',3'-dideoxythymidine (zidovudine) and related dideoxynucleosides.". N Engl J Med 321 (11): 726-38. PMID 2671731.
20. ^ The Best Democracy Money Can Buy by Greg Palast (2002)
21. ^ People with Aids Health Group v. Burroughs Wellcome Co., 1992 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 578
22. ^ US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. Burroughs Wellcome Co. v. Barr Laboratories, 40 F.3d 1223 (Fed. Cir. 1994). University of Houston -- Health Law and Policy Institute. Retrieved on 2007-02-28.
23. Katzung, Bertram G. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 10th edition. New York: McGraw, Hill Lange Medical, 2007, pp.536-541
An International Nonproprietary Name (INN; also known as rINN, for recommended International Nonproprietary Name) is the official non-proprietary or generic name given to a pharmaceutical substance, as designated by the World Health Organization (WHO).
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Antiretroviral drugs are medications for the treatment of infection by retroviruses, primarily HIV. Different classes of antiretroviral drugs act at different stages of the HIV life cycle.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
- Human immunodeficiency virus 1
- Human immunodeficiency virus 2
Classification & external resources
ICD-10 B20-B24
ICD-9 042 - 044
..... Click the link for more information.
Combivir is the brand name for a pharmaceutical treatment for HIV infection. It is a fixed dose combination of two antiretroviral drugs, lamivudine (also called 3TC, with the brand name Epivir) and zidovudine (also called AZT, with the brand name Retrovir ).
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Trizivir is a fixed dose combination of three reverse transcriptase inhibitors patented by GlaxoSmithKline:
..... Click the link for more information.
- abacavir ("ABC")
- lamivudine ("3TC")
- zidovudine ("AZT")
..... Click the link for more information.
In chemistry, analogs or analogues are compounds in which one or more individual atoms have been replaced, either with a different atom, or with a different functional group.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Thymidine (more precisely called deoxythymidine; can also be labelled deoxyribosylthymine, and thymine deoxyriboside) is a chemical compound, more precisely a pyrimidine deoxynucleoside.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Jerome Horwitz of Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute and Wayne State University School of Medicine is an American scientist. He first synthesized the compound that would later become known as zidovudine, an antiviral drug used to treat HIV, in 1964.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Wayne State University School of Medicine (WSUSOM) is the largest single-campus medical school in the United States with more than 1,000 medical students. In addition to undergraduate medical education, the school offers master’s degree, Ph.D. and M.D.-Ph.D.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
19th century - 20th century - 21st century
1930s 1940s 1950s - 1960s - 1970s 1980s 1990s
1961 1962 1963 - 1964 - 1965 1966 1967
..... Click the link for more information.
1930s 1940s 1950s - 1960s - 1970s 1980s 1990s
1961 1962 1963 - 1964 - 1965 1966 1967
- Also Nintendo emulator: 1964 (emulator).
..... Click the link for more information.
Motto
"In God We Trust" (since 1956)
"E Pluribus Unum" ("From Many, One"; Latin, traditional)
Anthem
..... Click the link for more information.
"In God We Trust" (since 1956)
"E Pluribus Unum" ("From Many, One"; Latin, traditional)
Anthem
..... Click the link for more information.
National Institutes of Health (NIH) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical research.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
In the United States Federal grants are economic aid issued by the United States government out of the general federal revenue. Grants may also be issued by private non-profit organizations such as foundations, not-for-profit corporations or charitable trusts which are all
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Editing of this page by unregistered or newly registered users is currently disabled due to vandalism.
If you are prevented from editing this page, and you wish to make a change, please discuss changes on the talk page, request unprotection, log in, or .
..... Click the link for more information.
If you are prevented from editing this page, and you wish to make a change, please discuss changes on the talk page, request unprotection, log in, or .
..... Click the link for more information.
An adverse drug reaction (abbreviated ADR) is an expression that describes the unwanted, negative consequences associated with the use of given medications. An ADR is a particular type of adverse effect.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
20th century - 21st century
1950s 1960s 1970s - 1980s - 1990s 2000s 2010s
1982 1983 1984 - 1985 - 1986 1987 1988
Year 1985 (MCMLXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar).
..... Click the link for more information.
1950s 1960s 1970s - 1980s - 1990s 2000s 2010s
1982 1983 1984 - 1985 - 1986 1987 1988
Year 1985 (MCMLXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar).
..... Click the link for more information.
Samuel Broder is an oncologist and medical researcher. He was a co-developer of some of the first effective drugs for the treatment of AIDS and was Director of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) from 1989 to 1995.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Hiroaki Mitsuya (born 1950) is a Japanese virologist famous for his role in discovery of the anti-HIV drug zidovudine (AZT) as well as other anti-AIDS drugs including didanosine (ddI) and zalcitabine (ddC). Mitsuya obtained his M.D. and Ph.D. at Kumamoto University in Japan.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Robert Yarchoan (born 1950) is a medical researcher who played an important role in the development of the first effective drugs for AIDS.
Dr. Yarchoan attended Amherst College and subsequently received his M.D. from the University of Pennsylvania.
..... Click the link for more information.
Dr. Yarchoan attended Amherst College and subsequently received his M.D. from the University of Pennsylvania.
..... Click the link for more information.
The National Cancer Institute (NCI) is part of the United States Federal government's National Institutes of Health. The NCI is a federally funded research and development center, one of eight agencies that compose the Public Health Service in the United States Department of Health
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
GlaxoSmithKline
Public (LSE: GSK
NYSE: GSK )
Founded 2000, by merger of Glaxo Wellcome and SmithKline Beecham
Headquarters London, England, UK
Key people Sir Chris Gent, Chairman
Dr Jean-Pierre Garnier, Chief Executive
..... Click the link for more information.
Public (LSE: GSK
NYSE: GSK )
Founded 2000, by merger of Glaxo Wellcome and SmithKline Beecham
Headquarters London, England, UK
Key people Sir Chris Gent, Chairman
Dr Jean-Pierre Garnier, Chief Executive
..... Click the link for more information.
In vitro (Latin: (with) in the glass) refers to the technique of performing a given experiment in a test tube, or, generally, in a controlled environment outside a living organism. In vitro fertilization is a well-known example of this.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
In health care, a clinical trial is a comparison test of a medication or other medical treatment (such as a medical device), versus a placebo (inactive look-a-like), other medications/devices, or the standard medical treatment for a patient's condition.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
CD4 (cluster of differentiation 4) is a glycoprotein expressed on the surface of T helper cells, regulatory T cells, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. It was discovered in the late 1970s and was originally known as leu-3 and T4 (after the OKT4 monoclonal antibody that
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Placebo effect is the term applied by medical science to the therapeutical and healing effects of inert medicines and/or ritualistic or faith healing manipulations.[1] [2].
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
In health care, a clinical trial is a comparison test of a medication or other medical treatment (such as a medical device), versus a placebo (inactive look-a-like), other medications/devices, or the standard medical treatment for a patient's condition.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
20th century - 21st century
1950s 1960s 1970s - 1980s - 1990s 2000s 2010s
1982 1983 1984 - 1985 - 1986 1987 1988
Year 1985 (MCMLXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar).
..... Click the link for more information.
1950s 1960s 1970s - 1980s - 1990s 2000s 2010s
1982 1983 1984 - 1985 - 1986 1987 1988
Year 1985 (MCMLXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar).
..... Click the link for more information.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is responsible the safety regulation of most types of foods, dietary supplements, drugs, vaccines, biological medical products, blood products, medical devices,
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
March 20 is the 1st day of the year (2nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 0 days remaining.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
19th century - 20th century - 21st century
1950s 1960s 1970s - 1980s - 1990s 2000s 2010s
1984 1985 1986 - 1987 - 1988 1989 1990
Year 1987 (MCMLXXXVII
..... Click the link for more information.
1950s 1960s 1970s - 1980s - 1990s 2000s 2010s
1984 1985 1986 - 1987 - 1988 1989 1990
Year 1987 (MCMLXXXVII
..... Click the link for more information.
This article is copied from an article on Wikipedia.org - the free encyclopedia created and edited by online user community. The text was not checked or edited by anyone on our staff. Although the vast majority of the wikipedia encyclopedia articles provide accurate and timely information please do not assume the accuracy of any particular article. This article is distributed under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License.
Herod_Archelaus
