Information about Xenon
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| General | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Name, Symbol, Number | xenon, Xe, 54 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Chemical series | noble gases | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Group, Period, Block | 18, 5, p | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Appearance | colorless) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Standard atomic weight | 131.293(6) gmol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electron configuration | [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p6 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electrons per shell | 2, 8, 18, 18, 8 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Physical properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Phase | gas | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Density | (0 C, 101.325 kPa) 5.894 g/L | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Melting point | 161.4 K (-111.7 °C, -169.1 °F) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Boiling point | 165.03 K (-108.12 °C, -162.62 °F) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Triple point | 161.405 K, 81.6 kPa [1] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Critical point | 289.77 K, 5.841 MPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Heat of fusion | 2.27 kJmol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Heat of vaporization | 12.64 kJmol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Heat capacity | (25 C) 20.786 Jmol−1K−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Atomic properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Crystal structure | cubic face centered | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Oxidation states | 0, +1, +2, +4, +6, +8 (rarely more than 0) (weakly acidic oxide) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electronegativity | 2.6 (scale Pauling) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Ionization energies | 1st: 1170.4 kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 2nd: 2046.4 kJ/mol | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 3rd: 3099.4 kJ/mol | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Atomic radius (calc.) | 108 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Covalent radius | 130 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Van der Waals radius | 216 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Miscellaneous | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Magnetic ordering | nonmagnetic | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thermal conductivity | (300 K) 5.65 m Wm−1K−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Speed of sound | (liquid) 1090 m/s | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| CAS registry number | 7440-63-3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Selected isotopes | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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)
Xenon (IPA: /ˈzɛnɒn, ˈziːnɒn/) is a chemical element that has the symbol Xe and atomic number 54. A colorless, heavy, odorless noble gas, xenon occurs in the earth's atmosphere in trace amounts. Although generally unreactive, xenon can undergo a few chemical reactions such as the formation of xenon hexafluoroplatinate, the first noble gas compound to be synthesized.[2][3][3]
Naturally occurring xenon is made of nine stable isotopes, but there are also over 40 unstable isotopes that undergo radioactive decay. Xenon is produced during supernova explosions and from the radioactive decay of elements such as iodine, uranium and plutonium. The isotope ratios of xenon are an important tool for studying the early history of the Solar System. Xenon-135 is produced as a result of nuclear fission and acts as a neutron absorber in nuclear reactors.
Xenon has many uses such as in xenon lamps and as a general anesthetic. The first excimer laser design used a xenon dimer molecule (Xe2) as its lasing medium, and the earliest laser designs used xenon flash lamps as pumps. Xenon is also being used to search for hypothetical weakly interactive massive particles and as the propellant for ion thrusters in spacecraft.
History
Xenon was discovered in England by William Ramsay and Morris Travers on July 12, 1898, shortly after their discovery of the elements krypton and neon. They found it in the residue left over from evaporating components of liquid air.[4][5] Sir Ramsay suggested the name xenon for this gas from the Greek word ξένον [xenon], neuter singular form of ξένος [xenos], meaning foreign, strange, or host.[6][7] In 1902, Sir Ramsay estimated the proportion of xenon in the Earth's atmosphere as one part in 20 million.[8]During the 1930s, the engineer Harold Edgerton began exploring strobe light technology for high-speed photography. In 1934 he pushed the time resolution down to a millionth of a second by creating an electrical spark inside a gas tube filled with xenon gas. By this means he invented the xenon flash lamp.[8]
Albert R. Behnke Jr. began exploring the causes of 'drunkenness' of deep-sea divers in 1939. He tested the effects of varying the breathing mixtures on his subjects, and discovered that this caused the divers to perceive a change in depth. From his results, he deduced that xenon gas could serve as an anesthetic. Although Lazharev, in Russia, apparently studied xenon anesthesia in 1941, the first published report confirming xenon anesthesia was in 1946 by J. H. Lawrence, who experimented on mice. Xenon was first used as a surgical anesthetic in 1951 by Stuart C. Cullen, who successfully operated on two patients.[9]
In 1960, the physicist John H. Reynolds discovered that certain meteorites contained an isotopic anomaly in the form of an overabundance of xenon-129. He inferred that this was a decay product of radioactive iodine-129. As the half-life of 129I is 16 million years, this demonstrated that the meteorites were formed during the early history of the Solar System, as the 129I isotope was likely generated by one or more supernovae before the Solar System was formed.[10][11]
Xenon and the other noble gases were for a long time considered to be completely chemically inert and not able to form compounds. However, in 1962 at the University of British Columbia, the first xenon compound, xenon hexafluoroplatinate, was synthesized by Neil Bartlett.[12]
Occurrence
Xenon is a trace gas in Earth's atmosphere, occurring at 0.087±0.001 parts per million (μL/L).[13] It is also found in gases emitted from some mineral springs. Radioactive species of xenon, for example, 133Xe and 135Xe, are produced by neutron irradiation of fissionable material within nuclear reactors.Xenon is obtained commercially as a byproduct of the separation of air into oxygen and nitrogen. After this separation, generally performed by fractional distillation in a double-column plant, the liquid oxygen produced will contain small quantities of krypton and xenon. By additional fractional distillation steps, the liquid oxygen may be enriched to contain 0.1%–0.2% of a krypton/xenon mixture, which is extracted either via adsorption onto silica gel or by distillation. Finally, the krypton/xenon mixture may be separated into krypton and xenon via distillation.[14][15] Extraction of a liter of xenon from the atmosphere requires 220 watt-hours of energy.[16] Worldwide production of xenon in 1998 was estimated at 5000–7000 m³.[17] Due to its low abundance, xenon is much more expensive than the lighter noble gases—approximate prices for the purchase of small quantities in Europe in 1999 were 10 €/L for xenon, 1 €/L for krypton, and 0.20 €/L for neon.[17]
Xenon is relatively rare in the Sun's atmosphere, on Earth, and in the asteroids and comets. The atmosphere of Mars shows a similar xenon abundance to that of Earth: 0.08 parts per million.[18] However, Mars shows a higher proportion of 129Xe than the Earth or the Sun. As this isotope is generated by radioactive decay, the result may indicate that Mars lost most of its primordial atmosphere, possibly within the first 100 million years.[19][20] By contrast, the planet Jupiter has an unusually high abundance of xenon in its atmosphere; about 2.6 times as much as the Sun.[21] This high abundance remains unexplained, but may have been caused by an early and rapid buildup of planetesimals—small, subplanetary bodies—before the presolar disk began to heat up.[22] (Otherwise, xenon would not have been trapped in the planetesimal ices.) Within the Solar System, the nucleon fraction for all isotopes of xenon is 1.56×10-8, or one part in 64 million of the total mass.[23] The problem of the low terrestrial xenon may potentially be explained by covalent bonding of xenon to oxygen within quartz, hence reducing the outgassing of xenon into the atmosphere.[24]
Unlike the lower mass noble gases, the normal stellar nucleosynthesis process inside a star does not form xenon. Elements more massive than iron-56 have a net energy cost to produce through fusion, so there is no energy gain for a star to create xenon.[25] Instead, many isotopes of xenon are formed during supernova explosions.[26]
Characteristics
An atom of xenon is defined as having a nucleus with 54 protons. At standard temperature and pressure, pure xenon gas has a density of 5.761 kg/m3, about 4.5 times the surface density of the Earth's atmosphere, 1.217 kg/m3.[27] As a liquid, xenon has a density of 3.52 g/mL, about 3.5 times the density of water. The density of solid xenon, 2.7 g/cm3, is only slightly below the average density of granite, 2.75 g/cm3.[28] Using gigapascals of pressure, xenon has been forced into a metallic phase.[29]Xenon is a member of the zero-valence elements that are called noble or inert gases. It is inert to most common chemical reactions (such as combustion, for example) because the outer valence shell is completely filled with eight electrons. This produces a stable, minimum energy configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly bound.[30] However, xenon can be oxidized by powerful oxidizing agents, and multiple compounds of this noble gas have been synthesized.
In a gas-filled tube, xenon emits a blue glow when the gas is excited by electrical discharge. Xenon emits a band of emission lines that span the visual spectrum,[31] but the most intense lines occur in the region of blue light, which produces the coloration.[32]
Isotopes
The artificial isotope 135Xe is of considerable significance in the operation of nuclear fission reactors. 135Xe has a huge cross section for thermal neutrons, 2.6×106 barns,[36] so it acts as a neutron absorber or "poison" that can slow or stop the chain reaction after a period of operation. This was discovered in the earliest nuclear reactors built by the American Manhattan Project for plutonium production. Fortunately the designers had made provisions in the design to increase the reactor's reactivity (the number of neutrons per fission that go on to fission other atoms of nuclear fuel).[37]
Relatively high concentrations of radioactive xenon isotopes are also found emanating from nuclear reactors due to the release of this fission gas from cracked fuel rods[38] or fissioning of uranium in cooling water.[39] The concentrations of these isotopes are still usually low compared to naturally occurring radioactive noble gases such as radon-222.[40]
Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes, xenon isotope ratios in meteorites are a powerful tool for studying the formation of the solar system. The iodine-xenon method of dating gives the time elapsed between nucleosynthesis and the condensation of a solid object from the solar nebula. Xenon isotopic ratios such as 129Xe/130Xe and 136Xe/130Xe are also a powerful tool for understanding terrestrial differentiation and early outgassing.[41] Excess 129Xe found in carbon dioxide well gases from New Mexico was believed to be from the decay of mantle-derived gases soon after Earth's formation.[42][35]
Compounds
)
The first chemical compound of xenon, xenon hexafluoroplatinate, was synthesized in 1962.[21] Now, many compounds of xenon are known, including xenon difluoride (XeF2), xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4), xenon hexafluoride (XeF6), xenon tetroxide (XeO4), and sodium perxenate (Na4XeO6). A highly explosive compound xenon trioxide (XeO3) has also been made. Most of the more than 80[43][44] xenon compounds found to date contain electro-negative fluorine or oxygen. When other atoms are bound (such as hydrogen or carbon), they are often part of a molecule containing fluorine or oxygen.[45] Some compounds of xenon are colored but most are colorless.[43]
Recently, at the University of Helsinki in Finland, a group of scientists (M. Räsänen et al.) prepared xenon dihydride (HXeH), xenon hydride-hydroxide (HXeOH), and hydroxenoacetylene (HXeCCH). They are stable up to 40 K.[46][47] Deuterated molecules, HXeOD and DXeOH, have also been produced.[48]
)
As well as compounds where xenon forms a chemical bond, xenon can form clathrates, such as xenon hydrate (Xe·5.75 H2O), where xenon atoms occupy vacancies in a lattice of water molecules.[49] The deuterated version of this hydrate has also been produced.[50] Such clathrate hydrates can occur naturally under conditions of high pressure, such as in Lake Vostok underneath the Antarctic ice sheet.[51] Clathrate formation can be used to fractionally distill xenon, argon and krypton.[52] Xenon can also form endohedral fullerene compounds, where a xenon atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule. The xenon atom trapped in the fullerene can be monitored via 129Xe nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Using this technique, chemical reactions on the fullerene molecule can be analyzed due to the sensitivity of the chemical shift of the xenon atom to its environment. However, the xenon atom also has an electronic influence on the reactivity of the fullerene.[53]
Applications
Although xenon is rare and relatively expensive to extract from the Earth' atmosphere, it still has a number of useful commercial applications.Illumination and optics
)
Xenon is used in light-emitting devices called xenon flash lamps, which are used in photographic flashes and stroboscopic lamps;[8] to excite the active medium in lasers which then generate coherent light;[55] to produce laser power for inertial confinement fusion[56] and rarely in bactericidal lamps.[57]
Continuous, short-arc, high pressure xenon arc lamps have a color temperature closely approximating noon sunlight and are used in solar simulators. After they were first introduced during the 1940s, these lamps began replacing the shorter-lived carbon arc lamps in movie projectors.[58] They are employed in typical 35mm and IMAX film projection systems, automotive HID headlights and other specialized uses. These arc lamps are an excellent source of short wavelength ultraviolet radiation and they have intense emissions in the near infrared, which is used in some night vision systems.
)
Illustration of a plasma display showing the phosphor-coated plasma cells and electrodes.
The first solid-state laser, invented in 1960, was pumped by a xenon flashlamp.[61] Bell laboratories later developed the high-gain helium-xenon (HeXe) gas laser.[62] A year afterward, the xenon laser was developed; it was among the first gas lasers discovered. This laser has a very high gain, but is only capable of producing low power levels with saturation at several microwatts.[63] The first excimer laser used a xenon dimer (Xe2) energized by a beam of electrons to produce stimulated emission at an ultraviolet wavelength of 172 nm.[64] Xenon chloride and xenon fluoride have also been used in excimer (or, more accurately, exciplex) lasers.[65] The xenon chloride excimer laser has been employed, for example, in certain dermatological uses.[66]
Anesthesia
Xenon has been used as a general anesthetic, although it is expensive. As of 2005, the cost of 99.99% pure xenon gas is US$10 per liter.[67] Even so, anesthesia machines that can deliver xenon are about to appear on the European market.[68] Two mechanisms for xenon anesthesia have been proposed. The first one involves the inhibition of the calcium ATPase pump—the mechanism cells use to remove calcium (Ca2+)—in the cell membrane of synapses.[69] This results from a conformational change when xenon binds to nonpolar sites inside the protein.[70] The second mechanism focuses on the non-specific interactions between the anesthetic and the lipid membrane.[71]Xenon has a minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of 0.63, making it 50% more potent than N2O as an anesthetic. Thus it can be used in concentrations with oxygen that have a lower risk of hypoxia. Unlike nitrous oxide (N2O), xenon is not a greenhouse gas and so it is also viewed as environmentally friendly. Because of the high cost of xenon, however, economic application will require a closed system so that the gas can be recycled.[16]
Medical imaging
Gamma emission from the radioisotope 133Xe of xenon can be used to image the heart, lungs, and brain, for example, by means of single photon emission computed tomography. 133Xe has also been used to measure blood flow.[72][73][74]When it is placed in the presence of an alkali vapor, the nucleus of the spin ½ isotope 129Xe can be readily polarized using light from a circularly-polarized laser. Typically the alkali metal rubidium is used for this purpose. The polarization can approach 50% of all the xenon atoms, a condition called hyperpolarization. (For most atoms, a Boltzmann distribution of polarized atoms is produced, resulting in detectable spins of only one in every 105 nuclei.) As xenon's electron shell is symmetric, there is only a minimal coupling between the polarized nucleus and external magnetic fields, so the hyperpolarized state can be conveniently maintained for a period of several days.[75] The hyperpolarization process renders the xenon more detectable via magnetic resonance imaging and has been used for studies of the lungs and other tissues. It can be used, for example, to trace the flow of gases within the lungs.[76][77]
Other
In nuclear energy applications, xenon is used in bubble chambers,[78] probes, and in other areas where a high molecular weight and inert nature is desirable.Liquid xenon is being used as a medium for detecting hypothetical weakly interactive massive particles, or WIMPs. When a WIMP collides with a xenon nucleus, it should, theoretically, strip an electron and create a primary scintillation. By using xenon, this burst of energy could then be readily distinguished from similar events caused by particles such as cosmic rays.[79] However, the XENON experiment at the Gran Sasso National Laboratory in Italy has thus far failed to find any confirmed WIMPs. Even if no WIMPs are detected though, the experiment will serve to constrain the properties of dark matter and some physics models.[80] The current detector at this facility is five times as sensitive as other instruments world-wide, and the sensitivity will be increased by an order of magnitude in 2008.[81]
Xenon is the preferred fuel for Ion propulsion of spacecraft because of its high atomic weight, ease of ionization, the ability to store it as a liquid at near room temperature (but at high pressure) yet easily converts back into a gas to fuel the engine. The inert nature of xenon makes it environmentally friendly and less corrosive to an ion engine than other fuels such as mercury or caesium. Xenon was first used for satellite ion engines during the 1970s.[82] It was later employed as a propellant for Europe's SMART-1 spacecraft[83] and for the three ion propulsion engines on NASA's Dawn Spacecraft.[84]
Chemically, the perxenate compounds are used as oxidizing agents in analytical chemistry. Xenon difluoride is used as an etchant for silicon, particularly in the production of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).[85] The anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil can be produced by reacting Xenon difluoride with Uracil.[86] Xenon is also used in protein crystallography. Applied at high pressure (about 600 psi) to a protein crystal, xenon atoms bind in predominantly hydrophobic cavities, often creating a high quality, isomorphous, heavy-atom derivative, which can be used for solving the "phase problem".[87]
Precautions
Xenon gas can be safely kept in normal sealed glass containers at standard temperature and pressure. Xenon is non-toxic, but many of its compounds are toxic due to their strong oxidative properties.[88]At 169 m/s, the speed of sound in xenon gas is slower than that in air[89] (due to the slower average speed of the heavy xenon atoms compared to nitrogen and oxygen molecules), so xenon lowers the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract when inhaled. This produces a characteristic lowered voice pitch, opposite the high-pitched voice caused by inhalation of helium. Like helium, xenon does not satisfy the body's need for oxygen and is a simple asphyxiant; consequently, many universities no longer allow the voice stunt as a general chemistry demonstration. As xenon is expensive, the gas sulfur hexafluoride, which is similar to xenon in molecular weight (146 versus 131), is generally used in this stunt, although it too is an asphyxiant.[90]
It is possible to safely breathe heavy gases such as xenon or sulfur hexafluoride when they include a 20% mixture of oxygen. The lungs mix the gases very effectively and rapidly, so that the heavy gases are purged along with the oxygen and do not accumulate at the bottom of the lungs.[91] There is, however, a danger associated with any heavy gas in large quantities: it may sit invisibly in a container, and if a person enters a container filled with an odorless, colorless gas, they may find themselves breathing it unknowingly. Xenon is rarely used in large enough quantities for this to be a concern, though the potential for danger exists any time a tank or container of xenon is kept in an unventilated space.[92]
See also
References
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54. ^ Burke, James (2003). Twin Tracks: The Unexpected Origins of the Modern World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0743226194.
55. ^ Staff (2007). Xenon Applications. Praxair Technology. Retrieved on 2007-10-04.
56. ^ Skeldon, M.D.; Saager, R.; Okishev, A.; Seka, W. (1997). "Thermal distortions in laser-diode- and flash-lamp-pumped Nd:YLF laser rods". LLE Review 71: 137-144. Retrieved on 2007-02-04.
57. ^ Baltás, E.; Csoma, Z.; Bodai, L.; Ignácz, F.; Dobozy, A.; Kemény, L. (2003). "A xenon-iodine electric discharge bactericidal lamp". Technical Physics Letters 29 (10): 871-872.
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66. ^ Shuaibov, A.; Shimon, L.; Grabovaya, I. (2006). "Treatment of atopic dermatitis with the xenon chloride excimer laser". Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology 20 (6): 657-660.
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68. ^ Tonner, P. H. (2006). "Xenon: one small step for anaesthesia...? (editorial review)". Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology 19 (4): 382-384.
69. ^ Franks, John J. MD; Horn, Jean-Louis MD; Janicki, Piotr K. MD, PhD; Singh, Gurkeerat PhD (1995). "Halothane, Isoflurane, Xenon, and Nitrous Oxide Inhibit Calcium ATPase Pump Activity in Rat Brain Synaptic Plasma Membranes.". Anesthesiology 82 (1): 108-117.
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32. ^ Watts, William Marshall (1904). An Introduction to the Study of Spectrum Analysis. London: Longmans, Green, and co..
33. ^ Lüscher, Roland (2006). Status of ßß-decay in Xenon. University of Sheffield. Retrieved on 2007-10-01.
34. ^ Barabash, A.S. (2002). "Average (Recommended) Half-Life Values for Two-Neutrino Double-Beta Decay". Czechoslovak Journal of Physics 52 (4): 567–573. Retrieved on 2007-10-01.
35. ^ Caldwell, Eric (January 2004). Periodic Table--Xenon. Resources on Isotopes. USGS. Retrieved on 2007-10-08.
36. ^ Stacey, Weston M. (2007). Nuclear Reactor Physics. Wiley-VCH, p. 213. ISBN 3527406794.
37. ^ Staff. Hanford Becomes Operational. The Manhattan Project: An Interactive History. U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2007-10-10.
38. ^ Laws, Edwards A. (2000). Aquatic Pollution: An Introductory Text. John Wiley and Sons, p. 505. ISBN 0471348759.
39. ^ Staff. "A Nuclear Nightmare", Time, April 9, 1979. Retrieved on 2007-10-09.1979">
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42. ^ Boulos, M.S.; Manuel, O.K. (1971). "The xenon record of extinct radioactivities in the Earth.". Science 174: 1334-1336.
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44. ^ Moody, G. J. (1974). "A Decade of Xenon Chemistry". Journal of Chemical Education 51: 628-630. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
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46. ^ Gerber, R. B. (June 2004). "Formation of novel rare-gas molecules in low-temperature matrices". Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 55: 55–78. DOI:10.1146/annurev.physchem.55.091602.094420.
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48. ^ Pettersson, Mika; Khriachtchev, Leonid; Lundell, Jan; Räsänen, Markku (1999). "A Chemical Compound Formed from Water and Xenon: HXeOH". Journal of the American Chemical Society 121 (50): 11904-11905. Retrieved on 2007-10-10.
49. ^ A molecular theory of general anesthesia, Linus Pauling, Science 134, #3471 (July 7, 1961), pp. 15–21. Reprinted as pp. 1328–1334, Linus Pauling: Selected Scientific Papers, vol. 2, edited by Barclay Kamb et al. River Edge, New Jersey: World Scientific: 2001, ISBN 9810229402.
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51. ^ McKay, C. P.; Hand, K. P.; Doran, P. T.; Andersen, D. T.; Priscu, J. C. (2003). "Clathrate formation and the fate of noble and biologically useful gases in Lake Vostok, Antarctica". Geophysical Letters 30 (13): 35. Retrieved on 2007-10-02.
52. ^ Barrer, R. M.;Stuart, W. I. (1957). "Non-Stoichiometric Clathrate of Water". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 243: 172–189.
53. ^ Frunzi, Michael; Cross, R. James; Saunders, Martin (2007). "Effect of Xenon on Fullerene Reactions". Journal of the American Chemical Society 129. DOI:10.1021/ja075568n.
54. ^ Burke, James (2003). Twin Tracks: The Unexpected Origins of the Modern World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0743226194.
55. ^ Staff (2007). Xenon Applications. Praxair Technology. Retrieved on 2007-10-04.
56. ^ Skeldon, M.D.; Saager, R.; Okishev, A.; Seka, W. (1997). "Thermal distortions in laser-diode- and flash-lamp-pumped Nd:YLF laser rods". LLE Review 71: 137-144. Retrieved on 2007-02-04.
57. ^ Baltás, E.; Csoma, Z.; Bodai, L.; Ignácz, F.; Dobozy, A.; Kemény, L. (2003). "A xenon-iodine electric discharge bactericidal lamp". Technical Physics Letters 29 (10): 871-872.
58. ^ Mellor, David (2000). Sound Person's Guide to Video. Focal Press, p. 186. ISBN 0240515951.
59. ^ Anonymous. The plasma behind the plasma TV screen. Plasma TV Science. Retrieved on 2007-10-14.
60. ^ Marin, Rick. "Plasma TV: That New Object Of Desire", The New York Times, March 21, 2001.2001">
61. ^ Toyserkani, E.; Khajepour, A.; Corbin, S. (2004). Laser Cladding. CRC Press. ISBN 0849321727.
62. ^ Bromberg, Joan Lisa (1991). The laser in America, 1950-1970. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 0262023180.
63. ^ Casperson, L. W. (June 28-July 7, 1987). "Gas Laser Instabilities and their Interpretation". Proceedings of a NATO Advanced Study Institute on Instabilities and Chaos in Quantum Optics, Ciocco, Italy: Springer. ISBN 0306429144.
64. ^ Basov, N. G.; Danilychev, V. A.; Popov, Yu. M. (1971). "Stimulated Emission in the Vacuum Ultraviolet Region". Soviet Journal of Quantum Electronics 1 (1): 18-22.
65. ^ Laser Output. University of Waterloo. Retrieved on 2007-10-07.
66. ^ Shuaibov, A.; Shimon, L.; Grabovaya, I. (2006). "Treatment of atopic dermatitis with the xenon chloride excimer laser". Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology 20 (6): 657-660.
67. ^ Sanders, Robert D.; Ma, Daqing; Maze, Mervyn (2005). "Xenon: elemental anaesthesia in clinical practice". British Medical Bulletin 71 (1): 115-135. Retrieved on 2007-10-02.
68. ^ Tonner, P. H. (2006). "Xenon: one small step for anaesthesia...? (editorial review)". Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology 19 (4): 382-384.
69. ^ Franks, John J. MD; Horn, Jean-Louis MD; Janicki, Piotr K. MD, PhD; Singh, Gurkeerat PhD (1995). "Halothane, Isoflurane, Xenon, and Nitrous Oxide Inhibit Calcium ATPase Pump Activity in Rat Brain Synaptic Plasma Membranes.". Anesthesiology 82 (1): 108-117.
70. ^ Lopez, Maria M.; Kosk-Kosicka, Danuta (1995). "How do volatile anesthetics inhibit Ca2+-ATPases?". Journal of Biological Chemistry 270 (47): 28239-28245.
71. ^ Heimburg, T.; Jackson A. D. (2007). "The thermodynamics of general anesthesia". Biophysical Journal 92 (9): 3159-65. DOI:10.1529/biophysj.106.099754.
72. ^ Van Der Wall, Ernst (1992). What's New in Cardiac Imaging?: SPECT, PET, and MRI. Springer. ISBN 0792316150.
73. ^ Introduction to imaging: The chest, John Frank, studentBMJ 12 (February 2004), pp. 1–44. Accessed on line October 19, 2007.
74. ^ Brain SPECT: Xenon-133. Accessed on line October 19, 2007.
75. ^ von Schulthess, Gustav Konrad; Smith, Hans-Jørgen; Pettersson, Holger; Allison, David John (1998). The Encyclopaedia of Medical Imaging. Taylor & Francis, p. 194. ISBN 1901865134.
76. ^ Albert, M. S.; Balamore, D. (1998). "Development of hyperpolarized noble gas MRI". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research 402: 441-53. Retrieved on 2007-10-01.
77. ^ Irion, Robert. "Head Full of Xenon?", Science News, March 23, 1999. Retrieved on 2007-10-08.1999">
78. ^ Galison, Peter Louis (1997). Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics. University of Chicago Press, p. 339. ISBN 0226279170.
79. ^ Ball, Philip (May 1, 2002). Xenon outs WIMPs. Nature. Retrieved on 2007-10-08.
80. ^ Schumann, Marc (October 10, 2007). XENON announced new best limits on Dark Matter. Rice University. Retrieved on 2007-10-08.
81. ^ Boyd, Jade. "Rice physicists go deep for 'dark matter'", Hubble News Desk, August 23, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-10-08.2007">
82. ^ Zona, Kathleen (March 17, 2006). Innovative Engines: Glenn Ion Propulsion Research Tames the Challenges of 21st Century Space Travel. NASA. Retrieved on 2007-10-04.
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84. ^ Dawn Launch: Mission to Vesta and Ceres (PDF). NASA. Retrieved on 2007-10-01.
85. ^ Brazzle, J.D.; Dokmeci, M.R.; Mastrangelo, C.H. (July 28-August 1, 1975). "Modeling and Characterization of Sacrificial Polysilicon Etching Using Vapor-Phase Xenon Difluoride". Proceedings 17th IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS): pp. 737-740, Maastricht, Netherlands: IEEE. ISBN 9780780382657.
86. ^ Staff (2007). Powerful tool. American Chemical Society. Retrieved on 2007-10-10.
87. ^ Staff (December 21, 2004). Protein Crystallography: Xenon and Krypton Derivatives for Phasing. PX. Retrieved on 2007-10-01.
88. ^ Finkel, A. J.; Katz, J. J.; Miller, C. E. (April 1, 1968). Metabolic and toxicological effects of water-soluble xenon compounds are studied. NASA. Retrieved on 2007-10-04.
89. ^ 169.44 m/s in xenon (at 0° C and 107 KPa), compared to 344 m/s in air. See: Vacek, V.; Hallewell, G.; Lindsay, S. (2001). "Velocity of sound measurements in gaseous per-fluorocarbons and their mixtures". Fluid Phase Equilibria 185: 305-314.
90. ^ Spangler, Steve (2007). Anti-Helium - Sulfur Hexafluoride. Steve Spangler Science. Retrieved on 2007-10-04.
91. ^ Yamaguchi, K.; Soejima, K.; Koda, E.; Sugiyama, N (2001). "Inhaling Gas With Different CT Densities Allows Detection of Abnormalities in the Lung Periphery of Patients With Smoking-Induced COPD". Chest Journal 51: 1907-1916. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.
92. ^ Staff (August 1, 2007). Cryogenic and Oxygen Deficiency Hazard Safety. Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. Retrieved on 2007-10-10.
External links
Iodine (IPA: /ˈaɪədaɪn, ˈaɪədɪn/, or /ˈaɪədiːn/; from Greek: iodes
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Caesium (also spelled cesium, IPA: /ˈsiːziəm/) is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Cs and atomic number 55.
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KRYPTON is a frame-based computer programming language.
"An Essential Hybrid Reasoning System: Knowledge and Symbol Level Accounts of KRYPTON", R.J. Brachman et al, Proc IJCAI-85, 1985 [1] .
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"An Essential Hybrid Reasoning System: Knowledge and Symbol Level Accounts of KRYPTON", R.J. Brachman et al, Proc IJCAI-85, 1985 [1] .
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Radon (IPA: /ˈreɪdɒn/) is a chemical element that has the symbol Rn and atomic number 86. Radon is a radioactive noble gas that is formed by the decay of radium.
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<onlyinclude> This is a list of chemical elements, sorted by name and color coded according to type of element.
Given is each element's element symbol, atomic number, atomic mass or most stable isotope, and group and period numbers on the periodic table.
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Given is each element's element symbol, atomic number, atomic mass or most stable isotope, and group and period numbers on the periodic table.
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<onlyinclude> This is a list of chemical elements by symbol, including the current signification used to identify the chemical elements as recognized by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, as well as proposed and historical signs.
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A table of chemical elements ordered by atomic number and color coded according to type of element. Given is each element's name, element symbol, group and period, Chemical series, and atomic mass (or most stable isotope).
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A group, also known as a family, is a vertical column in the periodic table of the chemical elements. There are 18 groups in the standard periodic table.
The modern explanation of the pattern of the periodic table is that the elements in a group have similar
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The modern explanation of the pattern of the periodic table is that the elements in a group have similar
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noble gases are the elements in group 18 (also sometimes Group 0 IUPAC Style, or Group 8) of the periodic table. It is also called helium family or neon family.
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A group, also known as a family, is a vertical column in the periodic table of the chemical elements. There are 18 groups in the standard periodic table.
The modern explanation of the pattern of the periodic table is that the elements in a group have similar
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The modern explanation of the pattern of the periodic table is that the elements in a group have similar
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Periods:]] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Series Alkalis Alkaline earths Lanthanides Actinides Transition metals Poor metals Metalloids Nonmetals Halogens Noble gases
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Series Alkalis Alkaline earths Lanthanides Actinides Transition metals Poor metals Metalloids Nonmetals Halogens Noble gases
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A block of the periodic table of elements is a set of adjacent groups. The respective highest-energy electrons in each element in a block belong to the same atomic orbital type.
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noble gases are the elements in group 18 (also sometimes Group 0 IUPAC Style, or Group 8) of the periodic table. It is also called helium family or neon family.
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A period 5 element is one of the chemical elements in the fifth row (or period) of the periodic table of the elements.
These are: Chemical elements in the fifth period
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
#
Name 37
Rb 38
Sr 39
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These are: Chemical elements in the fifth period
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
#
Name 37
Rb 38
Sr 39
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The p-block of the periodic table of the elements consists of the last six groups minus helium (which is located in the s-block). In the elemental form of the p-block elements, the highest energy electron occupies a p-orbital.
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Color or colour[1] (see spelling differences) is the visual perceptual property corresponding in humans to the categories called red, yellow, blue, black, etc.
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atomic mass (ma) is the mass of an atom at rest, most often expressed in unified atomic mass units.[1] The atomic mass may be considered to be the total mass of protons, neutrons and electrons in a single atom (when the atom is motionless).
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To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following list describes various mass levels between 10−36 kg and 1053 kg.
Factor (kg) Value Item
10−36 1.
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Factor (kg) Value Item
10−36 1.
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This is a list of chemical elements, sorted by relative atomic mass, or more precisely the standard atomic weights, (most stable isotope for artificial elements) and color coded according to type of element.
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electron configuration is the arrangement of electrons in an atom, molecule, or other physical structure (e.g., a crystal). Like other elementary particles, the electron is subject to the laws of quantum mechanics, and exhibits both particle-like and wave-like nature.
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KRYPTON is a frame-based computer programming language.
"An Essential Hybrid Reasoning System: Knowledge and Symbol Level Accounts of KRYPTON", R.J. Brachman et al, Proc IJCAI-85, 1985 [1] .
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"An Essential Hybrid Reasoning System: Knowledge and Symbol Level Accounts of KRYPTON", R.J. Brachman et al, Proc IJCAI-85, 1985 [1] .
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Electron
Theoretical estimates of the electron density for the first few hydrogen atom electron orbitals shown as cross-sections with color-coded probability density
Composition: Elementary particle
Family: Fermion
Group: Lepton
Generation: First
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Theoretical estimates of the electron density for the first few hydrogen atom electron orbitals shown as cross-sections with color-coded probability density
Composition: Elementary particle
Family: Fermion
Group: Lepton
Generation: First
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An electron shell, also known as a main energy level, is a group of atomic orbitals with the same value of the principal quantum number n. Electron shells are made up of one or more electron subshells, or sublevels
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In the physical sciences, a phase is a set of states of a macroscopic physical system that have relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties (i.e. density, crystal structure, index of refraction, and so forth).
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Gas is one of the four major states of matter, consisting of freely moving atoms or molecules without a definite shape. Compared to the solid and liquid states of matter a gas has lower density and a lower viscosity.
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In physics, density is mass m per unit volume V—how heavy something is compared to its size. A small, heavy object, such as a rock or a lump of lead, is denser than a lighter object of the same size or a larger object of the same weight, such as pieces of
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The melting point of a crystalline solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to liquid. Although the phrase would suggest a specific temperature and is commonly and incorrectly used as such in most textbooks and literature, most crystalline compounds
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The kelvin (symbol: K) is a unit increment of temperature and is one of the seven SI base units. The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale where absolute zero — the coldest possible temperature — is zero kelvins
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Celsius is, or relates to, the Celsius temperature scale (previously known as the centigrade scale). The degree Celsius (symbol: °C) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale
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