iPedia Free Information Center

Information about Taboo

This article is about cultural prohibitions in general, for other uses, see Taboo (disambiguation).
For the Polynesian religious concept (from which the word "Taboo" is derived), see Tapu.


A taboo is a strong social prohibition (or ban) against words, objects, actions, discussions, or people that are considered undesirable or offensive by a group, culture, or society. Breaking a taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent. Some taboo activities or customs are prohibited by law and transgressions may lead to severe penalties. Other taboos result in embarrassment, shame and rudeness.

Etymology

Common etymology traces the word back to the Tongan tabu (or tapu)[1][2] meaning "under prohibition" or "not allowed". In its modern use in Tonga, the word "tapu" also means "sacred" or "holy", although often in the sense of being restricted or protected by custom or by law. For example, the main island in the Kingdom of Tonga, where the capital Nuku'alofa is situated and most of the population resides, is called "Tongatapu". In this context, it means "Sacred South", rather than "forbidden south".

The use of the word "taboo" drawn from "tapu" meaning "not allowed" dates back to 1777 and an English explorer, Captain James Cook, visiting a place he named "the Friendly Islands" (now Tonga). Describing the Tongans, he wrote:

''"Not one of them would sit down, or eat a bit of any thing.... On expressing my surprise at this, they were all taboo, as they said; which word has a very comprehensive meaning; but, in general, signifies that a thing is forbidden.... When any thing is forbidden to be eat, or made use of, they say, that it is taboo."


Other sources indicate the word can also be derived from the Fijian word tabu.[2]

Some Solomon Islanders say that their languages have a word tabu (pronounced tam-boo) that means holy. It refers to places in the bush where holy spirits reside (usually marked with an object, such as a giant clam shell or stone carving). Those areas should not be disturbed unless a ceremony is taking place, therefore they are places that should not be touched.

Examples

Taboos can include dietary restrictions (halal and kosher diets, religious vegetarianism, and the prohibition of cannibalism), restrictions on sexual activities, gender roles and relationships (sex outside of marriage, adultery, intermarriage, miscegenation, homosexuality, incest, animal-human sex, pedophilia, necrophilia and paraphilias), restrictions of bodily functions (burping, flatulence, defecation, urination, masturbation, nosepicking, and spitting), restrictions on state of genitalia (circumcision or sex reassignment, exposure of body parts, pornography and nudity esp. in the US), illicit drugs, substance abuse, alcoholism, bodily pain, medical surgery, satanism or devil worship, restrictions on the use of offensive language also known as obscenity and vulgarity, and other topics/subjects that provoke emotional angst or may disturb people to discomfort. Some taboos originated by acts of authority, be it legal, social or religious, over a period of time.

"Common courtesy" taboos have more to do with etiquette and respect, including topics on sexuality, religion, death, disease, natural disasters, divorce, politics, crime, justice, money issues, gender, race/ethnicity, human rights, oppression, animal abuse, child abuse, domestic violence, abortion, miscarriage, pregnancy, childbirth, age, income, height, weight, appearance, and a variety of religious sins. Environmentalism, other ecology-related issues and scientific controversies (human evolution, eugenics, in-vitro fertilization, human cloning and stem cell research) are often treated like a taboo by their controversial and divisive nature in the realm of politics, morality and religious belief. When not in "polite society", discussions on taboos are allowed in humorous expression, such as comedy and satire.

Origin

There are varying explanations for the origin of taboos. While some explanations are anthropological and explain taboos using history and cultural experiences, other explanations are psychoanalytical and explain taboos as an unconscious phenomenon passing through generations.

Sigmund Freud

German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt explains that taboos were originally nothing other than an objectified fear of a "demonic" power which was believed to lie hidden in a tabooed object.[3] Sigmund Freud believes this to be a superficial explanation having nothing to do with the true origins of taboos. He claims that many similarities between taboo-holders and obsessive neurotics point to "a psychological condition that prevails in the unconscious".[4] Freud believes this "unconsciousness" is central to understanding the history of taboos. He then reconstructs the history of taboo based on the model of obsessional prohibitions as follows:

"Taboos, we must suppose, are prohibitions of primæval antiquity which were at some time externally imposed upon a generation of primitive men; they must, that is to say, no doubt have been impressed on them violently by the previous generation. These prohibitions must have concerned activities towards which there was a strong inclination. They must then have persisted from generation to generation, perhaps merely as a result of tradition transmitted through parental and social authority."[5]


And so, "Anyone who has violated a taboo becomes taboo himself because he possesses the dangerous quality of tempting others to follow his example."[6]

The taboo on the dead

Main article: Taboo on the dead


The 'taboo' on the dead includes the taboo against touching of a corpse and those who are caring for it; the taboo against mourners of the dead; and the taboo against anything associated with the dead (e.g., the dead person's name).

Examples

The taboo on corpses

  • Among the Māori anyone who had handled a corpse or taken any part in its burial was in the highest degree unclean and was almost cut off from social intercourse with his fellow-men. He could not enter any house, or come into contact with any person or thing without infecting them. He might not even touch food with his hands, which, owing to their uncleanness, had become quite useless. "Food would be set for him on the ground, and he would then sit or kneel down, and, with his hands carefully held behind his back, would gnaw at it as best he could. In some cases he would be fed by another person, who with outstretched arm contrived to do it without touching the tabooed man." The mourners of the dead were also secluded from the public. When their period of mourning was near completion, "all the dishes he had used in his seclusion were diligently smashed, and all the garments he had worn were carefully thrown away."[7]

The taboo on mourners

  • Among the Shuswap of British Columbia widows and widowers in mourning are secluded and forbidden to touch their own head or body; the cups and cooking vessels which they use may be used by no one else. [...] No hunter would come near such mourners, for their presence is unlucky. If their shadow were to fall on anyone, he would be taken ill at once. They employ thorn-bushes for bed and pillow, in order to keep away the ghost of the deceased; and thorn bushes are also laid all around their beds.[8]
  • Among the Agutainos, who inhabit Palawan, one of the Philippine Islands, a widow may not leave her hut for seven or eight days after the death; and even then she may only go out at an hour when she is not likely to meet anybody, for whoever looks upon her dies a sudden death. To prevent this fatal catastrophe, the widow knocks with a wooden peg on the trees as she goes along, thus warning people of her dangerous proximity; and the very trees on which she knocks soon die."[9]

The taboo on naming the dead

Main article: Taboo against naming the dead


The taboo on naming the dead prohibits any utterance of a dead man's name—any other words similar to it in sound. Some examples follow:
  • Among the Guaycurus of Paraguay, when a death had taken place, the chief used to change the name of every member of the tribe; and from that moment everybody remembered his new name just as if he had born it all his life.[10]
  • After a Yolngu man named Bitjingu died, the word bithiwul "no; nothing" was avoided.[11] In its place, a synonym or a loanword from another language would be used for a certain period, after which the original word could be used again; but in some cases the replacement word would continue to be used.

Origins and causes

Sigmund Freud traces back the origin of the dangerous character of widowers and widows to the danger of temptation. A man who has lost his wife must resist a desire to find a substitute for her; a widow must fight against the same wish and is moreover liable to arouse the desires of other men. Substitutive satisfactions of such a kind run counter to the sense of mourning and they would inevitably kindle the ghost's wrath.[12]

Freud explains that the fundamental reason for the existence of such taboos is the fear of the presence or of the return of the dead person's ghost. It is exactly this fear that leads to a great number of ceremonies aimed at keeping the ghost at a distance or driving him off.[13]

The Tuaregs of Sahara, for example, dread the return of the dead man's spirit so much that "[they] do all they can to avoid it by shifting their camp after a death, ceasing for ever to pronounce the name of the departed, and eschewing everything that might be regarded as an evocation or recall of his soul. Hence they do not, like the Arabs, designate individuals by adding to their personal names the names of their fathers. [...] they give to every man a name which will live and die with him."[14] In many cases the taboo remains intact until the body of the dead has completely decayed,[15] but until then the community must disguise itself so that the ghost shall not recognize them. For example, the Nicobar Islanders try to disguise themselves by shaving their heads.[16]

Psychologist Wilhelm Wundt associates the taboo to a fear that the dead man's soul has become a demon.[17] Moreover, many cases show a hostility toward the dead and their representation as malevolent figures.[18] Edward Westermarck notes that "Death is commonly regarded as the gravest of all misfortunes; hence the dead are believed to be exceedingly dissatisfied with their fate [...] such a death naturally tends to make the soul revengeful and ill-tempered. It is envious of the living and is longing for the company of its old friend."[19]

The taboo on rulers

Main article: Taboo on rulers

Examples

  • The Nubas of East Africa believe that they would die if they entered the house of their priestly king; however they can evade the penalty of their intrusion by baring the left shoulder and getting the king to lay his hands on it.[20]
  • In West Africa, in the woods of Shark Point near Cape Padron, in Lower Guinea, a priestly king named Kukulu once lived alone. Forbidden from touching a woman or leaving his house, or even leaving his chair, in which he would sleep, the natives feared that if he lay down no wind would rise and navigation would be stopped.[21]
  • The ancient kings of Ireland were subject to a number of strange restrictions as listed in The Book of Rights. The king, for instance, may not stay in a certain town on a particular day of the week; he may not cross a river on a particular hour of the day; he may not encamp for nine days on a certain plain, and so on.[22]

The taboo on warriors

Examples

Restrictions placed on a victorious slayer are unusually frequent and as a rule severe.[23]
  • In Timor, the leader of the expedition is forbidden "to return at once to his own house. A special hut is prepared for him, in which he has to reside for two months, undergoing bodily and spiritual purification. During this time he may not go to his wife nor feed himself; the food must be put in his mouth by another person."[24]
  • In some Dyak tribes, men returning from a successful expedition are obliged to keep to themselves for several days and abstain from various kinds of food; they may not touch iron nor have any intercourse with women.[25]
  • In Logea, an island in the neighborhood of New Guinea, "men who have killed or assisted in killing enemies shut themselves up for about a week in their houses. They must avoid all intercourse with their wives and friends, and they may not touch food with their hands. They may eat vegetable food only which is brought to them cooked in special pots. The intention of these restrictions is to guard the men against the smell of the blood of the slain; for it is believed that if they smelt the blood they would fall ill and die.
  • In the Toaripi or Motumotu tribe of south-eastern New Guinea a man who has killed another may not go near his wife, and may not touch food with his fingers. He is fed by others, and only with certain kinds of food. These observances last till the new moon."[26]

Taboo in literature

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud provided an analysis of taboo behaviours, highlighting strong subconscious motivations driving such prohibitions. In this system, described in his collection of essays Totem and Taboo, Freud postulates a link between forbidden behaviours and the sanctification of objects to certain kinship groups. Freud also states here that the only two "universal" taboos are that of incest and patricide, which formed the eventual basis of modern society.

See also

Notes

1. ^ Online Etymology dictionary. etymonline.com. Retrieved on 2007-06-05.
2. ^ Online dictionary. Lexico Publishing Group, LLC. Retrieved on 2007-06-05.
3. ^
4. ^
5. ^
6. ^ .
7. ^ , quoting
8. ^ , quoting .
9. ^ , quoting .
10. ^ .
11. ^ .
12. ^ .
13. ^ .
14. ^ .
15. ^ Freud (1990, 372).:The cuteness of this article needs .
16. ^ .
17. ^ , quoting .
18. ^ .
19. ^ , quoting .
20. ^ , quoting .
21. ^ , quoting .
22. ^ .
23. ^ .
24. ^ , quoting .
25. ^ , quoting .
26. ^ , quoting .

References

  • id="CITEREFBastian1874–5">Bastian, A. (1874–5), Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste [2 vols.] Jena.
    • id="CITEREFBlumentritt1891">Blumentritt, F. (1891), Über die Eingeborenen der Insel Palawan Globus, 59: [181ff.]
      • id="CITEREFBoas1890">Boas, F. (1890), "Second General Report on the Indians of British Columbia", Report of Sixtieth Meeting of the British Association [562ff.]
        • id="CITEREFBrown1845">Brown, W (1845), New Zealand and its Aborigines, London
          • id="CITEREFDixon2002">Dixon, R. M. W. (2002), Australian Languages: Their Nature and Developments, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-47378-0
            • id="CITEREFFrazer1911">Frazer, J. G. (1911), "Taboo and the Perils of the Soul", The Golden Bough (3rd ed., Part II ed.), London
              • id="CITEREFFrazer1990">Frazer, J. G. (1990), "Taboo and the Perils of the Soul", The Golden Bough (3rd ed., Part II ed.), New York: St. Martin's Press [1st ed., 1913.]
                • id="CITEREFFreud1950">Freud, Sigmund (1950), trans. Strachey, ed., , New York: W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-00143-1
                  • Kulick and Willson, Taboo: Sex, Identity, and Erotic Subjectivity in Anthropological Fieldwork 1995
                  • id="CITEREFMüller1857">Müller, S. (1857), Reizen en Onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel, Amsterdam
                    • id="CITEREFTregear1890">Tregear, E. (1890), "The Maoris of New Zealand", Journal of the Anthropological Institute xix
                      • id="CITEREFZweifelMoustier1880">Zweifel, J. & M. Moustier (1880), Voyage aux sources du Niger, Marseilles

                        External links

                        A taboo is a social prohibition or ban.

                        Taboo may also mean:

                        Music
                        • Taboo (Buck-Tick album), a 1989 album by Buck-Tick
                        • Taboo (rapper), a rapper with the Black Eyed Peas
                        • Taboo (musical), a stage musical by Boy George

                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Social refers to human society or its organization. Although the term is a crucial category in social science and often used in public discourse, its meaning is at times vague, suggesting that it is a fuzzy concept.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        A ban is, generally, any decree that prohibits something.

                        Bans are formed for the prohibition of activities within a certain political territory. Some see this as a negative act (equating it to a form of censorship or discrimination) and others see it as maintaining the "
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        LAW may refer to:
                        • Lightweight Anti-tank Weapon, like the M72 LAW (US Army) and the LAW 80 (British Army)
                        • Palestinian Society for the Protection of Human Rights (also known as LAW)
                        • League of American Bicyclists, formerly known as the League of American Wheelmen

                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        For other uses, see Sentence.


                        In law, a sentence forms the final act of a judge-ruled process, and also the symbolic principal act connected to his function.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Embarrassment is an emotional state experienced upon having a socially or professionally unacceptable act or condition witnessed by or revealed to others. Usually some amount of loss of honour or dignity is involved, but how much and the type depends on the embarrassing situation.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.
                        Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details.
                        This article has been tagged since September 2007.

                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Rudeness is the (apparent) disrespect and failure to behave within the context of a society or a group of people's social laws or etiquette. These laws have already unspokenly been established as the essential boundaries of normally accepted behavior.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Tongan}}} 
                        Official status
                        Official language of: Tonga
                        Regulated by: no official regulation
                        Language codes
                        ISO 639-1: to
                        ISO 639-2: ton
                        ISO 639-3: ton

                        Tongan (lea fakatonga
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Tapu may refer to:
                        • Tapu, a concept of several Polynesian cultures.
                        • Tapu, a form of land tenure in the Ottoman Empire.

                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        English (from Old English Ænglisc) are a nation and ethnic group native to England and speak English. The largest single population of English people reside in England — the largest constituent country of the United Kingdom.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Exploration is the act of searching or traveling for the purpose of discovery, e.g. of unknown regions, including space (space exploration), for oil, gas, coal, ores, caves, water (Mineral exploration or prospecting), or information.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        James Cook FRS RN (27 October 1728 (O.S.) – 14 February 1779) was an English explorer, navigator and cartographer. Ultimately rising to the rank of Captain in the Royal Navy, Cook was the first to map Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean during
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Motto
                        "Ko e ʻOtua mo Tonga ko hoku tofiʻa"
                        "God and Tonga are my Inheritance"
                        Anthem

                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Tongans make up the vast majority of the inhabitants of Tonga. They are a Polynesian ethnic group with little mixture of Melanesian and European.

                        The Tongan People

                        see Tonga and Demographics of Tonga

                        The Tongan Language

                        see Tongan language.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Fijian is an Austronesian language of the Malayo-Polynesian family spoken in Fiji. It has 350,000 first-language speakers, which is less than half the population of Fiji, but another 200,000 speak it as a second language.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Halal (حلال, ḥalāl, halaal) is an Arabic term meaning "permissible".
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Kashrut (also kashruth or kashrus, Hebrew: כַּשְרוּת‎) refers to Jewish dietary laws.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Vegetarianism is the practice of a diet that excludes all animal flesh, including poultry, game, fish, shellfish or crustacea, and slaughter by-products. There are variations that admit dairy products, eggs and/or products from animal labor such as honey.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        This article is about sexual practices (i.e., physical sex). Broader aspects of sexual behaviour such as social and psychological sexual issues are covered in related articles such as human sexuality, heterosexuality, and homosexuality.

                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject.
                        Please help recruit one or [ improve this article] yourself. See the talk page for details.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.
                        Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details.
                        This article has been tagged since September 2007.

                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Adultery is voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and one who is not his or her spouse. Some legal jurisdictions have defined it as "crime against marriage",[1] opposed to infidelity.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Interreligious marriage, traditionally (especially in the Catholic Church) called mixed marriage, is marriage (either religious or civil) between partners professing different religions. Some religions prohibit interreligious marriage, and while others do allow it, most restrict it.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Discrimination

                        Major forms
                        Racism
                        Sexism
                        Homophobia
                        Ageism
                        Antisemitism
                        Islamophobia
                        Ableism

                        Manifestations
                        Slavery · Racial profiling
                        Hate speech · Hate crime
                        Genocide · Ethnocide · Holocaust
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        This article may contain original research or unverified claims.
                        Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details.
                        This article has been tagged since July 2007.

                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Pedophilia or pædophilia (see spelling differences) is the primary or exclusive sexual attraction by adults to prepubescent youths. A person with this attraction is called a pedophile or paedophile.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Paraphilia (in Greek para παρά = besides and -philia φιλία = love)—in psychology and sexology, is a term that describes a family of persistent, intense fantasies, aberrant urges, or behaviors involving sexual
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Eructation
                        Classifications and external resources

                        ICD-10 R 14.
                        ICD-9 787.3

                        Burping, also known as belching, ructus, or eructation is the release of gas from the digestive tract (mainly esophagus and stomach) through the mouth.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.
                        Defecation is the act or process by which organisms eliminate solid or semisolid waste material (feces) from the digestive tract via the anus. Humans expel feces anywhere from a few times daily to a few times weekly; sloths can go a week without expelling.
                        ..... Click the link for more information.


This article is copied from an article on Wikipedia.org - the free encyclopedia created and edited by online user community. The text was not checked or edited by anyone on our staff. Although the vast majority of the wikipedia encyclopedia articles provide accurate and timely information please do not assume the accuracy of any particular article. This article is distributed under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License.
Herod_Archelaus


page counter