Information about Syntactic
In computer science, SYNTAX is a system used to generate lexical and syntactic analyzers (parsers) (both deterministic and non-deterministic) for all kind of context-free grammars (CFGs) as well as some classes of contextual grammars. It is developed at INRIA (France) for several decades, mostly by Pierre Boullier, but has become free software since 2007 only. SYNTAX is distributed under the CeCILL licence.
In linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek συν- syn-, “together”, and τάξις táxis, “arrangement”) is the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences, and which determine their relative grammaticality. The term syntax can also be used to refer to these rules themselves, as in “the syntax of a language”. Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules, and, for many practitioners, to find general rules that apply to all languages. Since the field of syntax attempts to explain grammaticality judgments, and not provide them, it is unconcerned with linguistic prescription.
Though all theories of syntax use humans as their object of study, there are some significant differences in outlook. Modern linguists see syntax as a branch of biology, since they conceive syntax as the study of linguistic knowledge as embodied in the human mind/brain. Others (e.g. Gerald Gazdar) take a more Platonistic view, regarding syntax as the study of an abstract formal system. [1]; others also (e.g. Joseph Greenberg) consider grammar as a taxonomical device to reach broad generalizations among languages.
the bird in the tree, the dog in the tree, the cat in the tree,
the bird in the tree, the dog on the tree, the cat under the tree,
the bird on the tree, the bird in a tree, a bird in a tree, a bird in the tree,
What we can determine by the content of the substitution frames tells us something about the syntax of that language. First off, it tells us about the grammatical categories that exist in the given language. From our examples, it shows us that "bird", "dog", and "cat" are words that belong to a specific grammatical category. It does the same thing for "in", "on" and "under". To make these categories easier to define, we would call the first group "nouns" and the second group "prepositions". This enables us to categorize words based on their appropriate labels.
In cases where there are two types different types of nouns, we would categorize one type as "subject nouns" and the other type as "object nouns". This would eliminate the problem of having the wrong order of nouns if one were using substitution frames to determine where to place a word in order to be grammatically correct.
Knowing another languages' substitution frames and categories of words, is helpful in learning the language because it offers a template of how the speakers structure their language. For example, in English you would say, "I like pizza." Literally translated syntax in Japanese would be, "I pizza like." The placement of the nouns and prepositions would not make sense if one literally translated this phrase without knowledge of the syntax of the given language. Studying and testing a languages' substitution frames can aid in this process.
Be aware that different languages may have very different substitution frames. This being said, be cautious not to rush into labeling your categories and keep an open mind as you encounter complexities. (Ottenhiemer, pp.-72-75)
For centuries, work in syntax was dominated by a framework known as grammaire générale, first expounded in 1660 by Antoine Arnauld in a book of the same title. This system took as its basic premise the assumption that language is a direct reflection of thought processes, and that hence there is a single most natural way to express a thought (which, coincidentally, was exactly the way it was expressed in French).
However, in the 19th century, with the development of historical-comparative linguistics, linguists began to realize the sheer diversity of human language, and to question fundamental assumptions about the relation between language and logic. It became apparent that there was no such thing as a most natural way to express a thought, and logic could no longer be relied upon as a base for studying the structure of language.
The Port-Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax on that of logic (indeed, large parts of the Port-Royal Logic were copied or adapted from the Grammaire générale[5]). Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones, and all sentences were analysed into the form "Subject-Copula-Predicate". Initially, this view was adopted even by the early comparative linguists (e.g., Bopp).
The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the last century which could reasonably called the "century of syntactic theory" as far as linguistics is concerned. For a detailed and critical survey of the history of syntax in the last two centuries see the monumental work by Graffi 2001.
In the framework of transformational-generative grammar (of which government and binding theory and minimalism are recent developments), the structure of a sentence is represented by phrase structure trees, otherwise known as phrase markers or tree diagrams. Such trees provide information about the sentences they represent by showing the hierarchical relations between their component parts. Dependency grammar is a different type of generative grammar in which structure is determined by the relation between a word (a head) and its dependents. One difference from phrase structure grammar is that dependency grammar does not have phrasal categories. Algebraic syntax is a type of dependency grammar.
A modern approach to combining accurate descriptions of the grammatical patterns of language with their function in context is that of systemic functional grammar, an approach originally developed by Michael A.K. Halliday in the 1960s. Systemic-functional grammar is related both to feature-based approaches such as Head-driven phrase structure grammar and to the older functional traditions of European schools of linguistics such as British Contextualism and the Prague School.
Tree-adjoining grammar is a grammar formalism with interesting mathematical properties which has sometimes been used as the basis for the syntactic description of natural language. In monotonic and monostratal frameworks, variants of unification grammar are often preferred formalisms.
With the publication of Gold's Theorem[6] 1967 it was claimed that grammars for natural languages governed by deterministic rules could not be learned based on positive instances alone. This was part of the argument from the poverty of stimulus, presented in 1980[7] and implicit since the early works by Chomsky of the 1950s. This led to the nativist view, that a form of grammar (including a complete conceptual lexicon in certain versions) were hardwired from birth.
A grammar is a description of the syntax of a language. Theoretical models rarely consider the language in use, as revealed by corpus linguistics, but focus on a mental language or i-language as its "proper" object of study. In contrast, the "empirically responsible"[8] approach to syntax seeks to construct grammars that will explain language in use. A key class of grammars in the latter tradition are the stochastic context-free grammars.
A problem faced in any formal syntax is that often more than one production rule may apply to a structure, thus resulting in a conflict. The greater the coverage, the higher this conflict, and all grammarians (starting with Panini) have spent considerable effort devising a prioritization for the rules, which usually turn out to be defeasible. Another difficulty is overgeneration, where unlicensed structures are also generated. Probabilistic grammars circumvent these problems by using the frequency of various productions to order them, resulting in a "most likely" (winner-take-all) interpretation, which by definition, is defeasible given additional data. As usage patterns are altered in diachronic shifts, these probabilistic rules can be re-learned, thus upgrading the grammar.
One may construct a probabilistic grammar from a traditional formal syntax by assigning each non-terminal a probability taken from some distribution, to be eventually estimated from usage data. On most samples of broad language, probabilistic grammars that tune these probabilities from data typically outperform hand-crafted grammars (although some rule-based grammars are now approaching the accuracies of PCFG).
Recently, probabilistic grammars appear to have gained some cognitive plausibility. It is well known that there are degrees of difficulty in accessing different syntactic structures (e.g. the Accessibility Hierarchy for relative clauses). Probabilistic versions of minimalist grammars have been used to compute information-theoretic entropy values which appear to correlate well with psycholinguistic data on understandability and production difficulty.[9]
Statistical grammars are not subject to Gold's theorem since the learning is incremental.
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Context-free parsing
SYNTAX handles most classes of deterministic (unambiguous) grammars (LR, LALR, RLR) as well as general context-free grammars. The deterministic version has been used in operational contexts (e.g., Ada[1]), and is currently used both in the domain of compilation[2]. The non-deterministic features include an Earley parser generator used for natural language processing[3]. Parsers generated by SYNTAX include powerful error recovery mechanisms, and allow the execution of semantic actions and attribute evaluation on the abstract tree or on the shared parse forest.Contextual parsing
The current version of SYNTAX (version 6.0 beta) includes also parser generators for other formalisms, used for natural language processing as well as bio-informatics. These formalisms are context-sensitive formalisms (TAG, RCG) or formalisms that rely on context-free grammars and are extended thanks to attribute evaluation, in particular for natural language processing (LFG).Notes and references
1. ^ The first tool-translator for the ADA language has been developped with SYNTAX by Pierre Boullier and others, as recalled in this page on the history of ADA. See also Pierre Boullier and Knut Ripken. Building an Ada compiler following meta-compilation methods. In Séminaires Langages et Traducteurs 1978-1981, pages 99-140. INRIA, Rocquencourt, France, 1981.
2. ^ E.g., by the VASY team at INRIA, in particular for the development of Traian.
3. ^ E.g., in the SxLFG parser, whose first version is described in this paper.
4. ^ Fortson IV, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-0315-9 (hb); 1-4051-0316-7 (pb). “[The Aṣṭādhyāyī] is a highly precise and thorough description of the structure of Sanskrit somewhat resembling modern generative grammar…[it] remained the most advanced linguistic analysis of any kind until the twentieth century.
5. ^ Arnauld, Antoine (1683). La logique, 5th ed., Paris: G. Desprez, 137. “Nous avons emprunté…ce que nous avons dit…d'un petit Livre…sous le titre de Grammaire générale.
6. ^ Gold, E. (1967). Language identification in the limit. Information and Control 10, 447-474.
7. ^ Chomsky, N. (1980). Rules and representations Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
8. ^ George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1999). Philosophy in the Flesh: The embodied mind and its challenge to Western thought. Part IV.. New York: Basic Books..
9. ^ John Hale (2006). "Uncertainty About the Rest of the Sentence". Cognitive Science 30: 643-672. DOI:doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0000_64.
2. ^ E.g., by the VASY team at INRIA, in particular for the development of Traian.
3. ^ E.g., in the SxLFG parser, whose first version is described in this paper.
4. ^ Fortson IV, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-0315-9 (hb); 1-4051-0316-7 (pb). “[The Aṣṭādhyāyī] is a highly precise and thorough description of the structure of Sanskrit somewhat resembling modern generative grammar…[it] remained the most advanced linguistic analysis of any kind until the twentieth century.
5. ^ Arnauld, Antoine (1683). La logique, 5th ed., Paris: G. Desprez, 137. “Nous avons emprunté…ce que nous avons dit…d'un petit Livre…sous le titre de Grammaire générale.
6. ^ Gold, E. (1967). Language identification in the limit. Information and Control 10, 447-474.
7. ^ Chomsky, N. (1980). Rules and representations Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
8. ^ George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1999). Philosophy in the Flesh: The embodied mind and its challenge to Western thought. Part IV.. New York: Basic Books..
9. ^ John Hale (2006). "Uncertainty About the Rest of the Sentence". Cognitive Science 30: 643-672. DOI:doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0000_64.
See also
In linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek συν- syn-, “together”, and τάξις táxis, “arrangement”) is the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences, and which determine their relative grammaticality. The term syntax can also be used to refer to these rules themselves, as in “the syntax of a language”. Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules, and, for many practitioners, to find general rules that apply to all languages. Since the field of syntax attempts to explain grammaticality judgments, and not provide them, it is unconcerned with linguistic prescription.
Though all theories of syntax use humans as their object of study, there are some significant differences in outlook. Modern linguists see syntax as a branch of biology, since they conceive syntax as the study of linguistic knowledge as embodied in the human mind/brain. Others (e.g. Gerald Gazdar) take a more Platonistic view, regarding syntax as the study of an abstract formal system. [1]; others also (e.g. Joseph Greenberg) consider grammar as a taxonomical device to reach broad generalizations among languages.
Substitution Frames
Substitution frames are grammatical frames into which you can place related words. These frames can prove very useful in learning the syntax of a new language. Here are some examples of substitution frames:the bird in the tree, the dog in the tree, the cat in the tree,
the bird in the tree, the dog on the tree, the cat under the tree,
the bird on the tree, the bird in a tree, a bird in a tree, a bird in the tree,
What we can determine by the content of the substitution frames tells us something about the syntax of that language. First off, it tells us about the grammatical categories that exist in the given language. From our examples, it shows us that "bird", "dog", and "cat" are words that belong to a specific grammatical category. It does the same thing for "in", "on" and "under". To make these categories easier to define, we would call the first group "nouns" and the second group "prepositions". This enables us to categorize words based on their appropriate labels.
In cases where there are two types different types of nouns, we would categorize one type as "subject nouns" and the other type as "object nouns". This would eliminate the problem of having the wrong order of nouns if one were using substitution frames to determine where to place a word in order to be grammatically correct.
Knowing another languages' substitution frames and categories of words, is helpful in learning the language because it offers a template of how the speakers structure their language. For example, in English you would say, "I like pizza." Literally translated syntax in Japanese would be, "I pizza like." The placement of the nouns and prepositions would not make sense if one literally translated this phrase without knowledge of the syntax of the given language. Studying and testing a languages' substitution frames can aid in this process.
Be aware that different languages may have very different substitution frames. This being said, be cautious not to rush into labeling your categories and keep an open mind as you encounter complexities. (Ottenhiemer, pp.-72-75)
Early history
Works on grammar were of course being written long before modern syntax came about; the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini is often cited as an example of a pre-modern work that approaches the sophistication of a modern syntactic theory.[4] In the West, the school of thought that came to be known as ‘traditional grammar’ began with the work of Dionysius Thrax.For centuries, work in syntax was dominated by a framework known as grammaire générale, first expounded in 1660 by Antoine Arnauld in a book of the same title. This system took as its basic premise the assumption that language is a direct reflection of thought processes, and that hence there is a single most natural way to express a thought (which, coincidentally, was exactly the way it was expressed in French).
However, in the 19th century, with the development of historical-comparative linguistics, linguists began to realize the sheer diversity of human language, and to question fundamental assumptions about the relation between language and logic. It became apparent that there was no such thing as a most natural way to express a thought, and logic could no longer be relied upon as a base for studying the structure of language.
The Port-Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax on that of logic (indeed, large parts of the Port-Royal Logic were copied or adapted from the Grammaire générale[5]). Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones, and all sentences were analysed into the form "Subject-Copula-Predicate". Initially, this view was adopted even by the early comparative linguists (e.g., Bopp).
The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the last century which could reasonably called the "century of syntactic theory" as far as linguistics is concerned. For a detailed and critical survey of the history of syntax in the last two centuries see the monumental work by Graffi 2001.
Modern theories
Generative grammar constitutes one of the most innovative ideas in linguistics since its origin. There are two features shared by most theories of formal syntax. First, they hierarchically group subunits into constituent units (usually referred to as phrases). Second, they provide a system of rules to explain why certain utterances seem more acceptable or grammatical than others. Most formal theories of syntax also offer explanations of the systematic relationships between syntax and semantics, in other words, between form and meaning.)
Phrase structure tree
A modern approach to combining accurate descriptions of the grammatical patterns of language with their function in context is that of systemic functional grammar, an approach originally developed by Michael A.K. Halliday in the 1960s. Systemic-functional grammar is related both to feature-based approaches such as Head-driven phrase structure grammar and to the older functional traditions of European schools of linguistics such as British Contextualism and the Prague School.
Tree-adjoining grammar is a grammar formalism with interesting mathematical properties which has sometimes been used as the basis for the syntactic description of natural language. In monotonic and monostratal frameworks, variants of unification grammar are often preferred formalisms.
With the publication of Gold's Theorem[6] 1967 it was claimed that grammars for natural languages governed by deterministic rules could not be learned based on positive instances alone. This was part of the argument from the poverty of stimulus, presented in 1980[7] and implicit since the early works by Chomsky of the 1950s. This led to the nativist view, that a form of grammar (including a complete conceptual lexicon in certain versions) were hardwired from birth.
A grammar is a description of the syntax of a language. Theoretical models rarely consider the language in use, as revealed by corpus linguistics, but focus on a mental language or i-language as its "proper" object of study. In contrast, the "empirically responsible"[8] approach to syntax seeks to construct grammars that will explain language in use. A key class of grammars in the latter tradition are the stochastic context-free grammars.
A problem faced in any formal syntax is that often more than one production rule may apply to a structure, thus resulting in a conflict. The greater the coverage, the higher this conflict, and all grammarians (starting with Panini) have spent considerable effort devising a prioritization for the rules, which usually turn out to be defeasible. Another difficulty is overgeneration, where unlicensed structures are also generated. Probabilistic grammars circumvent these problems by using the frequency of various productions to order them, resulting in a "most likely" (winner-take-all) interpretation, which by definition, is defeasible given additional data. As usage patterns are altered in diachronic shifts, these probabilistic rules can be re-learned, thus upgrading the grammar.
One may construct a probabilistic grammar from a traditional formal syntax by assigning each non-terminal a probability taken from some distribution, to be eventually estimated from usage data. On most samples of broad language, probabilistic grammars that tune these probabilities from data typically outperform hand-crafted grammars (although some rule-based grammars are now approaching the accuracies of PCFG).
Recently, probabilistic grammars appear to have gained some cognitive plausibility. It is well known that there are degrees of difficulty in accessing different syntactic structures (e.g. the Accessibility Hierarchy for relative clauses). Probabilistic versions of minimalist grammars have been used to compute information-theoretic entropy values which appear to correlate well with psycholinguistic data on understandability and production difficulty.[9]
Statistical grammars are not subject to Gold's theorem since the learning is incremental.
See also
Syntactic terms
- Adjective
- Attributive adjective and predicative adjective
- Adjunct
- Adverb
- Antecedent-contained deletion
- Appositive
- Article
- Aspect
- Auxiliary verb
- Case
- Clause
- Closed class word
- Comparative
- Complement
- Compound noun and adjective
- Conjugation
- Conjunction
- Dangling modifier
- Declension
- Determiner
- Dual (form for two)
- Expletive
- Function word
- Gender
- Gerund
- Infinitive
- Measure word (classifier)
- Modal particle
- Movement paradox
- Modifier
- Mood
- Noun
- Number
- Object
- Open class word
- Parasitic gap
- Part of speech
- Particle
- Person
- Phrase
- Phrasal verb
- Plural
- Predicate (also verb phrase)
- Predicative (adjectival or nominal)
- Preposition
- Personal pronoun
- Pronoun
- Restrictiveness
- Sandhi
- Sentence (linguistics)
- Singular
- Subject
- Superlative
- Tense
- Uninflected word
- Verb
- Voice
- Wh-movement
- Word order
Notes
References
- Brown, Keith; Jim Miller (eds.) (1996). Concise Encyclopedia of Syntactic Theories. New York: Elsevier Science. ISBN 0-08-042711-1.
- Freidin, Robert; Howard Lasnik (eds.) (2006). Syntax, Critical Concepts in Linguistics. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24672-5.
- Graffi, Giorgio (2001). 200 Years of Syntax. A Critical Survey, Studies in the History of the Language Sciences 98. Amsterdam: Benjamins. ISBN 90-272-4587-8.
External links
- The syntax of natural language (Beatrice Santorini & Anthony Kroch, University of Pennsylvania)
- Learn Programming Language Syntax
- Various syntactic constructs used in computer programming languages
Computer science, or computing science, is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their implementation and application in computer systems.
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In computer science, lexical analysis is the process of converting a sequence of characters into a sequence of tokens. Programs performing lexical analysis are called lexical analyzers or lexers. A lexer consists of a scanner and a tokenizer.
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parsing (more formally syntactic analysis) is the process of analyzing a sequence of tokens to determine its grammatical structure with respect to a given formal grammar. A parser is the component of a compiler that carries out this task.
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In formal language theory, a context-free grammar (CFG) is a grammar in which every production rule is of the form
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- V → w
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The Institut national de recherche en informatique et en automatique (INRIA) (English: The French National Institute for Computer Science and Control
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Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité
"Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"
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"La Marseillaise"
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Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité
"Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"
Anthem
"La Marseillaise"
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CEA CNRS INRIA Logiciel Libre
Author: CEA, CNRS, & INRIA
Version: 2.0
Copyright on the license: CEA, CNRS, & INRIA
Publication date: 5 September 2006
OSI approved: No
Debian approved: ?
Free Software: Yes
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Author: CEA, CNRS, & INRIA
Version: 2.0
Copyright on the license: CEA, CNRS, & INRIA
Publication date: 5 September 2006
OSI approved: No
Debian approved: ?
Free Software: Yes
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In computer science, an LR parser is a parser for context-free grammars that reads input from Left to right and produces a Rightmost derivation. The term LR(k) parser is also used; here the k
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In computer science, a lookahead LR parser or LALR parser is a specialized form of LR parser that can deal with more context-free grammars than Simple LR (SLR) parsers.
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Ada
Paradigm: multi-paradigm: concurrent, distributed, generic-programming, imperative, object-oriented
Appeared in: 1983, last revised 2005
Designed by: Jean Ichbiah, extended
by S.
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Paradigm: multi-paradigm: concurrent, distributed, generic-programming, imperative, object-oriented
Appeared in: 1983, last revised 2005
Designed by: Jean Ichbiah, extended
by S.
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Compilation may refer to:
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- Compilation (programming), translation of source code into object code by a compiler
- Compilation, in accountancy, the presentation of information in the form of financial statements that are the representation of management, without expressing
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Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of artificial intelligence and computational linguistics. It studies the problems of automated generation and understanding of natural human languages.
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Tree-adjoining grammar (TAG) is a grammar formalism defined by Aravind Joshi. Tree-adjoining grammars are somewhat similar to context-free grammars, but the elementary unit of rewriting is the tree rather than the symbol.
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Lexical functional grammar (LFG) is a grammar framework in theoretical linguistics, a variety of generative grammar. The development of the theory was initiated by Joan Bresnan and Ronald Kaplan in the 1970s, in reaction to the direction research in the area of transformational
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The Institut national de recherche en informatique et en automatique (INRIA) (English: The French National Institute for Computer Science and Control
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digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier given to a document, which is not related to its current location. A typical use of a DOI is to give a scientific paper or article a unique identifying number that can be used by anyone to locate details of the paper, and
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French (français, pronounced [fʁɑ̃ˈsɛ]) is a Romance language originally spoken in France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Switzerland, and today by about 300 million people around the world as either
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For the journal, see .
Linguistics is the scientific study of language, which can be theoretical or applied. Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist...... Click the link for more information.
Theoretical linguistics is the branch of linguistics that is most concerned with developing models of linguistic knowledge. Part of this endeavor involves the search for and explanation of linguistic universals, that is, properties all languages have in common.
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Phonetics (from the Greek word φωνή, phone meaning 'sound, voice') is the study of the sounds of human speech. It is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones), and their production, audition and perception, while phonology, which
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Phonology (Greek φωνή (phōnē), voice, sound + λόγος (lógos), word, speech, subject of discussion), is a subfield of linguistics which studies the sound system of a..... Click the link for more information.
For other uses, see Morphology.
Morphology is the field within linguistics that studies the internal structure of words. (Words as units in the lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology...... Click the link for more information.
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Lexical semantics is a subfield of linguistics. It is the study of how and what the words of a language denote (Pustejovsky, 1995). Words may either be taken to denote things in the world, or concepts, depending on the particular approach to lexical semantics.
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Statistical Semantics is the study of "how the statistical patterns of human word usage can be used to figure out what people mean, at least to a level sufficient for information access" (Furnas, 2006).
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Structural semantics deals with relationships between the meanings of terms within a sentence, and how meaning can be composed from smaller elements.
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See also
- Principle of compositionality
- Ferdinand de Saussure
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Prototype Theory is a mode of graded categorization in Cognitive Science, where some members of a category are more central than others. For example, when asked to give an example of the concept furniture, chair is more frequently cited than, say, stool.
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Pragmatics is the study of the ability of natural language speakers to communicate more than that which is explicitly stated. The ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called pragmatic competence.
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Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, linguistics, psychology, anthropology, and sociology.
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