Information about Perfect Pitch
Absolute pitch (AP), widely referred to as perfect pitch, is the ability of a person to identify or sing a musical note without the benefit of a known reference.
The distinction between the abilities to name the pitch of a note without reference to another note, and to sing a named note without reference to a previously sounded note, has long been acknowledged (see, for example, references in the New Grove Dictionary of Music.[3][4])
It is possible that level-tone languages which are found in Africa—such as Yoruba,[16] with three pitch levels, and Mambila,[17] with four—may be better suited to study the role of absolute pitch in speech than the contour-tone languages of East Asia.
Further, speakers of European languages have been found to make use of an absolute, though subconscious, pitch memory when speaking.[18]
The prevalence of absolute pitch is considerably higher among individuals with early childhood in East Asia than among other groups.[25][26][27][28] This difference has been suggested to be racial in origin.[29] However, individuals of East Asian heritage with early childhood in the United States or Canada do not have a higher prevalence of absolute pitch than do Caucasians with early childhood in the United States or Canada;[28] this difference in prevalence therefore cannot be explained on genetic grounds. It should be noted that many East Asians (such as those in China) speak tone languages such as Mandarin and Cantonese, while others (such as those in Japan and certain provinces of Korea) speak pitch accent languages; this prevalence difference could therefore be due to exposure to pitches together with meaningful labels very early in life.[30]<ref name="deu_2006" /> <ref name="deu_2006b" /> <ref name="deu_2007" />
Researchers have been trying to teach absolute pitch ability for more than a century,[36] and various commercial absolute-pitch training courses have been offered to the public since the early 1900s.[37] It has been shown possible to learn the naming of tones later in life, although some consider this skill not to be true absolute pitch.[38] Although it has been shown possible to learn to identify pitches, keys, and everyday sounds later in life, no training method for adults has yet been shown to produce abilities comparable to naturally occurring absolute pitch.[39]
For children aged 2-4, however, recent observations have shown a certain method of music education[40] to apparently be successful in training absolute pitch,[41] but the same method has also been shown to fail with students 5 years and older, suggesting that a developmental change in perception occurs which favors relative learning over absolute and thus supporting the theory of the "critical period" for learning absolute pitch.[42]
Definition
Absolute pitch, or perfect pitch, is "the ability to identify the frequency or musical name of a specific tone, or, conversely, the ability to produce some designated frequency, frequency level, or musical pitch without comparing the tone with any objective reference tone, i.e., without using relative pitch."[1] Possessors of absolute pitch exhibit the ability in varying degrees. Generally, absolute pitch implies some or all of the following abilities:- Identify and name individual pitches (e.g. A, B, C#) played on various instruments
- Name the key of a given piece of tonal music
- Identify and name all the tones of a given chord or other tonal mass
- Sing a given pitch without an external reference
- Name the pitches of common everyday occurrences such as car horns
The distinction between the abilities to name the pitch of a note without reference to another note, and to sing a named note without reference to a previously sounded note, has long been acknowledged (see, for example, references in the New Grove Dictionary of Music.[3][4])
Scientific studies
As difference in cognition, not elementary sensation
Physically and functionally, the auditory system of an absolute listener does not appear to be measurably different from a non-absolute listener.[5] Rather, "AP perception is not dependent on a special kind of ear; it reflects a particular ability to analyze frequency information, presumably involving high-level cortical processing."[6] Absolute pitch is an act of cognition, needing memory of the frequency, a label for the frequency (such as "B-flat"), and exposure to the range of sound encompassed by that categorical label. Absolute pitch may be directly analogous to recognizing colors, phonemes (speech sounds) or other categorical perception of sensory stimuli. Even as most people have learned to recognize and name the color blue by its frequency, it is possible that those who have had early (somewhere between the ages of 3 and 6)[7] and meaningful exposure to the names of musical tones will be likely to identify, for example, middle C. Absolute pitch, however, may be genetic, possibly an autosomal dominant genetic trait,[8][9] though it "might be nothing more than a general human capacity whose expression is strongly biased by the level and type of exposure to music that people experience in a given culture."[1]As influenced by music experience
Absolute pitch sense appears to be influenced by cultural exposure to music, especially in the familiarization of the equal-tempered C-major scale. Most of the absolute listeners that were tested in this respect identified the C-major tones more reliably and, except for B, more quickly than the five "black key" tones,[10] which corresponds to the higher prevalence of these tones in ordinary musical experience. One study of Dutch non-musicians also demonstrated a bias toward using C-major tones in ordinary speech, especially on syllables related to emphasis.[11]Linguistics
Absolute pitch is more common among speakers of tonal languages such as most dialects of Chinese or Vietnamese, which depend heavily on pitch for lexical meaning.[12] [13] Speakers of Sino-Tibetan languages have been reported to speak a word in the same absolute pitch (within a quarter-tone) on different days; it has therefore been suggested that absolute pitch may be acquired by infants when they learn to speak in a tonal language[14] (and possibly also by infants when they learn to speak in a pitch stress language). However, the brains of tonal-language speakers do not naturally process musical sound as language;[15] perhaps such individuals may be more likely to acquire absolute pitch for musical tones when they later receive musical training.It is possible that level-tone languages which are found in Africa—such as Yoruba,[16] with three pitch levels, and Mambila,[17] with four—may be better suited to study the role of absolute pitch in speech than the contour-tone languages of East Asia.
Further, speakers of European languages have been found to make use of an absolute, though subconscious, pitch memory when speaking.[18]
Perception
Although absolute pitch is predicated on the ability to perceive and identify "tone chroma"[19] — where "tone chroma" is a psychological interpretation of a fundamental vibratory frequency[20] — absolute pitch is not a heightened ability to perceive and discriminate fine gradations of sound frequencies,[21] but rather the ability to mentally categorize sounds into predefined pitch areas.[22] An absolute listener's sense of hearing is no keener than that of a non-absolute ("normal") listener;[23] furthermore, the tasks of identification (recognizing and naming a pitch) and discrimination (detecting changes or differences in rate of vibration) are accomplished with different brain mechanisms.[24]Race and absolute pitch
- See also:
The prevalence of absolute pitch is considerably higher among individuals with early childhood in East Asia than among other groups.[25][26][27][28] This difference has been suggested to be racial in origin.[29] However, individuals of East Asian heritage with early childhood in the United States or Canada do not have a higher prevalence of absolute pitch than do Caucasians with early childhood in the United States or Canada;[28] this difference in prevalence therefore cannot be explained on genetic grounds. It should be noted that many East Asians (such as those in China) speak tone languages such as Mandarin and Cantonese, while others (such as those in Japan and certain provinces of Korea) speak pitch accent languages; this prevalence difference could therefore be due to exposure to pitches together with meaningful labels very early in life.[30]<ref name="deu_2006" /> <ref name="deu_2006b" /> <ref name="deu_2007" />
Nature or nurture?
Many people have believed that musical ability itself is an inborn talent.[31] Some scientists currently believe absolute pitch may have an underlying genetic basis and are trying to locate genetic correlates;[32] most believe that the acquisition of absolute pitch requires early training during a critical period of development, regardless of whether or not a genetic predisposition toward development exists.[33] The "unlearning theory," first proposed by Abraham,[34] has recently been revived by developmental psychologists who argue that every person possesses absolute pitch (as a mode of perceptual processing) when they are infants, but that a shift in cognitive processing styles (from local, absolute processing to global, relational processing) causes most people to unlearn it; or, at least, causes children with musical training to discard absolute pitch as they learn to identify musical intervals.[35] Additionally, any nascent absolute pitch may be lost simply by the lack of reinforcement or lack of clear advantages in most activities in which the developing child is involved. An unequivocal resolution to the ongoing debate would require controlled experiments that are both impractical and unethical.Researchers have been trying to teach absolute pitch ability for more than a century,[36] and various commercial absolute-pitch training courses have been offered to the public since the early 1900s.[37] It has been shown possible to learn the naming of tones later in life, although some consider this skill not to be true absolute pitch.[38] Although it has been shown possible to learn to identify pitches, keys, and everyday sounds later in life, no training method for adults has yet been shown to produce abilities comparable to naturally occurring absolute pitch.[39]
For children aged 2-4, however, recent observations have shown a certain method of music education[40] to apparently be successful in training absolute pitch,[41] but the same method has also been shown to fail with students 5 years and older, suggesting that a developmental change in perception occurs which favors relative learning over absolute and thus supporting the theory of the "critical period" for learning absolute pitch.[42]
Potential problems
Persons who have absolute pitch may feel irritated when a piece is transposed to a different key or played at a nonstandard pitch.[43] They may fail to develop strong relative pitch when following standard curricula, despite the fact that maintaining absolute strategies can make simple relative tasks more difficult. For instance, transposition of music from one key to another may prove more difficult for an individual who interprets music as a fixed sequence of absolute tones rather than relative patterns of notes. Absolute pitch possessors have been known to find it difficult to play with an orchestra that is not tuned to standard concert pitch A4 = 440 hertz (442 Hz in some countries); this may be due to a perception of pitch which is categorical rather than freely adjustable.[44]Special Populations
The prevalence of absolute pitch is higher among those who are blind from birth, due to Optic Nerve Hypoplasia, and has been claimed to be higher among individuals with Williams Syndrome[45] and those with Autistic Spectrum Disorder.[46][47]Correlation with musical talent
Absolute pitch is not a prerequisite for developing a high level of talent as a musician or composer, and musicians may disagree about the overall value and relevance of absolute pitch ability to musical experience. Due to uncertainty in the historical record, and, until recently, lack of objective tests, it is often impossible to determine whether famous composers and musicians had absolute pitch or not. Since absolute pitch is rare in European musical culture,<ref name="deu_2006b" /> claims that any particular musician possessed it are to be doubted, unless there is clear contemporary evidence. Among composers of the Baroque music and Classical music era eras, such evidence is available only for Mozart's perfect pitch.[48] For 19th century-musicians such as Camille Saint-Saëns and John Philip Sousa, it became more common for the presence of absolute pitch to be recorded.Relative pitch
Many musicians have quite good relative pitch, a skill which can be learned. With practice, it is possible to listen to a single known pitch once (from a pitch pipe or a tuning fork) and then have stable, reliable pitch identification by comparing the notes heard to the stored memory of the tonic pitch.[49] Unlike absolute pitch, this skill is dependent on a recently-perceived tonal center.References
1. ^ Ward, W.D. (1998). "Absolute Pitch", in D. Deutsch (Ed.): The Psychology of Music (Second Edition). San Diego: Academic Press, 265-298. ISBN 0-12-213564-4.
2. ^ Miyazaki, Ken'ichi (June 2004). "How well do we understand absolute pitch?". Acoustical Science and Technology 25 (6): 270–282. Full text
3. ^ Spender, N. (1980). "Absolute Pitch", in Sadie, S. (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan, 27-29. ISBN 0-333-23111-2.
4. ^ Parncutt, R. and Levitin, D. J. (2001). "Absolute Pitch", in Sadie, S. (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan. ISBN 1-56159-239-0.
5. ^ Sergeant, D. (1969). "Experimental investigation of absolute pitch". Journal of Research in Music Education 17: 135-143.
6. ^ Gregersen, P.K. (1998). "Instant Recognition: The Genetics of Pitch Perception". American Journal of Human Genetics 62: 221-223. Full text
7. ^ Takeuchi, A.H. & Hulse, S.H (1993). "Absolute pitch". Psychological Bulletin 113: 345-361.
8. ^ Profita, J,. & Bidder, T.G (1988). "Perfect pitch". American Journal of Medical Genetics 29: 763-771.
9. ^ Baharloo, S., Johnston, P. A., Service, S. K., Gitschier, J. & Freimer, N. B. (1998). "Absolute pitch: An approach for identification of genetic and nongenetic components". American Journal of Human Genetics 62: 224-231. Full text
10. ^ Miyazaki, K (1990). "The speed of musical pitch identification by absolute-pitch possessors". Music Perception 8: 177-188.
11. ^ Braun, M. (2002). "Absolute pitch in emphasized speech". Acoustical Society of America: Acoustics Research Letters Online 3: 77–82. Full text
12. ^ [2]D. Deutsch, T. Henthorn and M. Dolson, "Tone Language Speakers Possess Absolute Pitch", lay language version of Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1999, 106, 2267.
13. ^ [3] D. Deutsch, T. Henthorn, E. Marvin and H. Xu, "Perfect Pitch in Tone Language Speakers Carries Over to Music", lay language version of Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 2005, 116, 2580.
14. ^ Deutsch, D., Henthorn, T., and Dolson, M. (2004). "Absolute pitch, speech, and tone language: Some experiments and a proposed framework". Music Perception 21: 339-356. Full text
15. ^ Gandour, J., Wong, D., and Hutchins, G. (1998). "Pitch processing in the human brain is influenced by language experience". Neuroreport 9: 2115-2119. Full text
16. ^ Connell, B., Ladd, D.R. (1990). "Aspects of pitch realization in Yoruba". Phonology 7: 1-29.
17. ^ Connell, B. (2000). "The perception of lexical tone in Mambila". Language and Speech 43: 163-182.
18. ^ Braun, M. (2001). "Speech mirrors norm-tones: Absolute pitch as a normal but precognitive trait". Acoustical Society of America: Acoustics Research Letters Online 2: 85–90. Full text
19. ^ Revesz, G. (1913). "Über die beiden Arten des absoluten Gehörs". Zeitschrift International Musikgesellschaft 14: 130-137. Full textFull text (English)
20. ^ Korpell, H.S. (1965). "On the mechanism of tonal chroma in absolute pitch". American Journal of Psychology 78: 298-300.
21. ^ Oakes, W.F. (1955). "An experimental study of pitch naming and pitch discrimination reactions". Journal of Genetic Psychology 86: 237-259.
22. ^ Rakowski, A. (1993). "Categorical perception in absolute pitch". Archives of Acoustics Quarterly 18: 515-523.
23. ^ Fujisaki, W. and Kashino, M. (2002). "The basic hearing abilities of absolute pitch possessors". Acoustic Science and Technology 23: 77-83. Full text
24. ^ Tervaniemi, M., Alho, K., Paavilainen, P., Sams, M., and Näätänen, R. (1993). "Absolute pitch and event-related brain potentials". Music Perception 10: 305-316.
25. ^ P. K. Gregersen, E. Kowalsky, N. Kohn, and E. Marvin (2000). "Early childhood music education and predisposition to absolute pitch". Am. J. Med. Gen. 98: 280-282.
26. ^ D. Deutsch, T. Henthorn, E. W. Marvin, and H-S. Xu (2006.). "Absolute pitch among American and Chinese conservatory students: Prevalence differences, and evidence for a speech-related critical period (L)a)". J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 119: 719-722. Full Text
27. ^ Deutsch, D (2006). "The enigma of absolute pitch". Acoustics Today 2: 11-19. Full Text
28. ^ Henthorn, T. & Deutsch, D. (2007). "Ethnicity versus Early Environment: Comment on 'Early childhood music education and predisposition to absolute pitch: Teasing apart genes and environment' by Peter K. Gregersen, Elena Kowalsky, Nina Kohn, and Elizabeth West Marvin (2000).". American Journal of Medical Genetics 143A: 102-103. Full Text
29. ^ Zatorre, R.. "Absolute Pitch: A model for understanding the influence of genes and development on neural and cognitive function". Full Text
30. ^ Deutsch, D., Henthorn, T., and Dolson, M. (2004). "Absolute pitch, speech, and tone language: Some experiments and a proposed framework". Music Perception 21: 339-356. Full text
31. ^ Copp, E.F. (1916). "Musical Ability". Journal of Heredity 7: 297–305. Full text
32. ^ Drayna, D., Manichaikul, A., DeLange, M., Snieder, H., and Spector, T. (2001). "Genetic correlates of musical pitch recognition in humans". Science 291: 1969–1972.
33. ^ Chin, C. (2003). "The development of absolute pitch". Psychology of Music 31: 155–171.
34. ^ Abraham, O. (1901). "Das absolute tonbewußtsein.". Sammelbände der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft 3: 1–86. Full text Full text (English)
35. ^ Saffran, J. R. & Griepentrog, G. J. (2001). "Absolute pitch in infant auditory learning: Evidence for developmental reorganization". Developmental Psychology 37: 74–85. Full text
36. ^ Meyer, M. (1899). "Is the memory of absolute pitch capable of development by training?". Psychological Review 6: 514–516. Full text
37. ^ Maryon, E. (1924). The Science of Tone-Color. Boston: C. C. Birchard & Co.. Full text
38. ^ Levitin, D. J. & Rogers, S. E. (2005). "Absolute pitch: Perception, coding, and controversies". Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9: 26-33. Full text
39. ^ Takeuchi, A.H. & Hulse, S.H (1993). "Absolute pitch". Psychological Bulletin 113: 345-361.
40. ^ Oura, Y. & Eguchi, K. (1982). "Absolute pitch training program for children". Music Education Research 32: 162–171.
41. ^ Sakakibara, A. (1999). "A longitudinal study of a process for acquiring absolute pitch". Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology 47.
42. ^ Sakakibara, A. (2004). "Why are people able to acquire absolute pitch only during early childhood?: Training age and acquisition of absolute pitch.". Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology 52: 485–496.
43. ^ Miyazaki, K. (1993). "Absolute pitch as an inability: Identification of musical intervals in a tonal context.". Music Perception 11: 55-72.
44. ^ Harris, G.B. (1974). Categorical perception and absolute pitch. Ontario: University of Western Ontario.
45. ^ Lenhoff, H. M., Perales, O., & Hickok, G. (2001). "Absolute pitch in Williams syndrome.". Music Perception 18: 491-503.
46. ^ Heaton, P., Hermelin, B., & Pring, L. (1998). "Autism and pitch processing: A precursor for savant musical ability". Music Perception 15: 291-305.
47. ^ Sacks, O. (2007). Musicophilia: Tales of Music and the Brain. New York: Knopf. ISBN 1-400-04081-7.
48. ^ [4] D. Deutsch (2006), "The Enigma of Absolute Pitch", Acoustics Today.
49. ^ Brady, P.T. (1970). "Fixed-scale mechanism of absolute pitch". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 48: 883-887.
2. ^ Miyazaki, Ken'ichi (June 2004). "How well do we understand absolute pitch?". Acoustical Science and Technology 25 (6): 270–282. Full text
3. ^ Spender, N. (1980). "Absolute Pitch", in Sadie, S. (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan, 27-29. ISBN 0-333-23111-2.
4. ^ Parncutt, R. and Levitin, D. J. (2001). "Absolute Pitch", in Sadie, S. (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan. ISBN 1-56159-239-0.
5. ^ Sergeant, D. (1969). "Experimental investigation of absolute pitch". Journal of Research in Music Education 17: 135-143.
6. ^ Gregersen, P.K. (1998). "Instant Recognition: The Genetics of Pitch Perception". American Journal of Human Genetics 62: 221-223. Full text
7. ^ Takeuchi, A.H. & Hulse, S.H (1993). "Absolute pitch". Psychological Bulletin 113: 345-361.
8. ^ Profita, J,. & Bidder, T.G (1988). "Perfect pitch". American Journal of Medical Genetics 29: 763-771.
9. ^ Baharloo, S., Johnston, P. A., Service, S. K., Gitschier, J. & Freimer, N. B. (1998). "Absolute pitch: An approach for identification of genetic and nongenetic components". American Journal of Human Genetics 62: 224-231. Full text
10. ^ Miyazaki, K (1990). "The speed of musical pitch identification by absolute-pitch possessors". Music Perception 8: 177-188.
11. ^ Braun, M. (2002). "Absolute pitch in emphasized speech". Acoustical Society of America: Acoustics Research Letters Online 3: 77–82. Full text
12. ^ [2]D. Deutsch, T. Henthorn and M. Dolson, "Tone Language Speakers Possess Absolute Pitch", lay language version of Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1999, 106, 2267.
13. ^ [3] D. Deutsch, T. Henthorn, E. Marvin and H. Xu, "Perfect Pitch in Tone Language Speakers Carries Over to Music", lay language version of Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 2005, 116, 2580.
14. ^ Deutsch, D., Henthorn, T., and Dolson, M. (2004). "Absolute pitch, speech, and tone language: Some experiments and a proposed framework". Music Perception 21: 339-356. Full text
15. ^ Gandour, J., Wong, D., and Hutchins, G. (1998). "Pitch processing in the human brain is influenced by language experience". Neuroreport 9: 2115-2119. Full text
16. ^ Connell, B., Ladd, D.R. (1990). "Aspects of pitch realization in Yoruba". Phonology 7: 1-29.
17. ^ Connell, B. (2000). "The perception of lexical tone in Mambila". Language and Speech 43: 163-182.
18. ^ Braun, M. (2001). "Speech mirrors norm-tones: Absolute pitch as a normal but precognitive trait". Acoustical Society of America: Acoustics Research Letters Online 2: 85–90. Full text
19. ^ Revesz, G. (1913). "Über die beiden Arten des absoluten Gehörs". Zeitschrift International Musikgesellschaft 14: 130-137. Full textFull text (English)
20. ^ Korpell, H.S. (1965). "On the mechanism of tonal chroma in absolute pitch". American Journal of Psychology 78: 298-300.
21. ^ Oakes, W.F. (1955). "An experimental study of pitch naming and pitch discrimination reactions". Journal of Genetic Psychology 86: 237-259.
22. ^ Rakowski, A. (1993). "Categorical perception in absolute pitch". Archives of Acoustics Quarterly 18: 515-523.
23. ^ Fujisaki, W. and Kashino, M. (2002). "The basic hearing abilities of absolute pitch possessors". Acoustic Science and Technology 23: 77-83. Full text
24. ^ Tervaniemi, M., Alho, K., Paavilainen, P., Sams, M., and Näätänen, R. (1993). "Absolute pitch and event-related brain potentials". Music Perception 10: 305-316.
25. ^ P. K. Gregersen, E. Kowalsky, N. Kohn, and E. Marvin (2000). "Early childhood music education and predisposition to absolute pitch". Am. J. Med. Gen. 98: 280-282.
26. ^ D. Deutsch, T. Henthorn, E. W. Marvin, and H-S. Xu (2006.). "Absolute pitch among American and Chinese conservatory students: Prevalence differences, and evidence for a speech-related critical period (L)a)". J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 119: 719-722. Full Text
27. ^ Deutsch, D (2006). "The enigma of absolute pitch". Acoustics Today 2: 11-19. Full Text
28. ^ Henthorn, T. & Deutsch, D. (2007). "Ethnicity versus Early Environment: Comment on 'Early childhood music education and predisposition to absolute pitch: Teasing apart genes and environment' by Peter K. Gregersen, Elena Kowalsky, Nina Kohn, and Elizabeth West Marvin (2000).". American Journal of Medical Genetics 143A: 102-103. Full Text
29. ^ Zatorre, R.. "Absolute Pitch: A model for understanding the influence of genes and development on neural and cognitive function". Full Text
30. ^ Deutsch, D., Henthorn, T., and Dolson, M. (2004). "Absolute pitch, speech, and tone language: Some experiments and a proposed framework". Music Perception 21: 339-356. Full text
31. ^ Copp, E.F. (1916). "Musical Ability". Journal of Heredity 7: 297–305. Full text
32. ^ Drayna, D., Manichaikul, A., DeLange, M., Snieder, H., and Spector, T. (2001). "Genetic correlates of musical pitch recognition in humans". Science 291: 1969–1972.
33. ^ Chin, C. (2003). "The development of absolute pitch". Psychology of Music 31: 155–171.
34. ^ Abraham, O. (1901). "Das absolute tonbewußtsein.". Sammelbände der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft 3: 1–86. Full text Full text (English)
35. ^ Saffran, J. R. & Griepentrog, G. J. (2001). "Absolute pitch in infant auditory learning: Evidence for developmental reorganization". Developmental Psychology 37: 74–85. Full text
36. ^ Meyer, M. (1899). "Is the memory of absolute pitch capable of development by training?". Psychological Review 6: 514–516. Full text
37. ^ Maryon, E. (1924). The Science of Tone-Color. Boston: C. C. Birchard & Co.. Full text
38. ^ Levitin, D. J. & Rogers, S. E. (2005). "Absolute pitch: Perception, coding, and controversies". Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9: 26-33. Full text
39. ^ Takeuchi, A.H. & Hulse, S.H (1993). "Absolute pitch". Psychological Bulletin 113: 345-361.
40. ^ Oura, Y. & Eguchi, K. (1982). "Absolute pitch training program for children". Music Education Research 32: 162–171.
41. ^ Sakakibara, A. (1999). "A longitudinal study of a process for acquiring absolute pitch". Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology 47.
42. ^ Sakakibara, A. (2004). "Why are people able to acquire absolute pitch only during early childhood?: Training age and acquisition of absolute pitch.". Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology 52: 485–496.
43. ^ Miyazaki, K. (1993). "Absolute pitch as an inability: Identification of musical intervals in a tonal context.". Music Perception 11: 55-72.
44. ^ Harris, G.B. (1974). Categorical perception and absolute pitch. Ontario: University of Western Ontario.
45. ^ Lenhoff, H. M., Perales, O., & Hickok, G. (2001). "Absolute pitch in Williams syndrome.". Music Perception 18: 491-503.
46. ^ Heaton, P., Hermelin, B., & Pring, L. (1998). "Autism and pitch processing: A precursor for savant musical ability". Music Perception 15: 291-305.
47. ^ Sacks, O. (2007). Musicophilia: Tales of Music and the Brain. New York: Knopf. ISBN 1-400-04081-7.
48. ^ [4] D. Deutsch (2006), "The Enigma of Absolute Pitch", Acoustics Today.
49. ^ Brady, P.T. (1970). "Fixed-scale mechanism of absolute pitch". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 48: 883-887.
External links
- An online absolute pitch test and survey conducted by the University of California Absolute Pitch Study
- Ongoing research on genetics of absolute pitch
Further reading
- Comprehensive historical bibliography of absolute pitch research, 1876-present
See also
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note has two primary meanings: 1) a sign used in music to represent the relative duration and pitch of a sound; and 2) a pitched sound itself. Notes are the "atoms" of much Western music: discretizations of musical phenomena that facilitate performance, comprehension, and analysis
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Pitch is the perceived fundamental frequency of a sound. While the actual fundamental frequency can be precisely determined through physical measurement, it may differ from the perceived pitch because of overtones, or partials, in the sound.
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key signature is a series of sharp symbols or flat symbols placed on the staff, designating notes that are to be consistently played one semitone higher or lower than the equivalent natural notes (for example, the white notes on a piano keyboard) unless otherwise altered with an
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chord (from Greek χορδή: gut, string) is three or more different notes that sound simultaneously. Most often, in European-influenced music, chords are tertian sonorities that can be constructed as stacks of thirds relative to some underlying scale.
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The term relative pitch may denote:
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- the distance of a musical note from a set point of reference, e.g. "three octaves above middle C"
- a musician's ability to identify the intervals between given tones, regardless of their relation to concert pitch (A = 440 Hz)
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The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians is an encyclopedic dictionary of music and musicians and is regarded as the most authoritative reference source on the subject in the English language.
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Color or colour[1] (see spelling differences) is the visual perceptual property corresponding in humans to the categories called red, yellow, blue, black, etc.
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phoneme is the smallest unit of speech that distinguishes meaning. Phonemes are not the physical segments themselves, but abstractions of them. An example of a phoneme would be the /t/ found in words like tip,
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Do or C is the first note of the fixed-Do solfege.
In Western music, the expression "middle C" refers to the note "C" (or "Do" in fixed-Do solfege) located exactly between the two staves of the grand staff, quoted as C4 in scientific pitch
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In Western music, the expression "middle C" refers to the note "C" (or "Do" in fixed-Do solfege) located exactly between the two staves of the grand staff, quoted as C4 in scientific pitch
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An autosome is a non-sex chromosome. It is an ordinarily pairedIn the case of higher ploidy levels than the usual diploid, there will be the same number of an autosome as the ploidy level itself. For example, in a pentaploid, there will be five copies of each autosome.
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In music, a scale is a collection of musical notes that provides material for part or all of a musical work. Scales are ordered in pitch or pitch class, with their ordering providing a measure of musical distance.
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A Tonal language is a language that uses tone to distinguish words. Tone is a phonological trait common to many languages around the world (though rare in Europe, the Middle East, South Asia, and the Pacific). Chinese is perhaps the most well-known of such languages.
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Chinese or the Sinitic language(s) (汉语/漢語, Pinyin: Hà nyǔ; 华语/華語, Huáyǔ; or 中文, Zhōngwén) can be considered a language or language family.
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Vietnamese (tiếng Việt, or less commonly Việt ngữ[1]), formerly known under the French colonization as Annamese (see Annam), is the national and official language of Vietnam.
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lexicon of a language is its vocabulary, including its words and expressions. More formally, it is a language's inventory of lexemes.
The lexicon includes the lexemes used to actualize words. Lexemes are formed according to morpho-syntactic rules and express sememes.
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The lexicon includes the lexemes used to actualize words. Lexemes are formed according to morpho-syntactic rules and express sememes.
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Sino-Tibetan languages form a hypothetical language family composed of, at least, the Chinese and the Tibeto-Burman languages, including some 250 languages of East Asia. They are second only to the Indo-European languages in terms of their number of speakers.
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Yoruba}}}
Official status
Official language of: Nigeria
Regulated by: no official regulation
Language codes
ISO 639-1: yo
ISO 639-2: yor
ISO 639-3: yor
Yoruba (native name èdè Yorùbá
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Official status
Official language of: Nigeria
Regulated by: no official regulation
Language codes
ISO 639-1: yo
ISO 639-2: yor
ISO 639-3: yor
Yoruba (native name èdè Yorùbá
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The Mambila or Mambilla people of Nigeria and Cameroon live on the Mambila Plateau (in Taraba State in Nigeria) and on the Tikar Plain in Cameroon as well as in several small villages further north towards the town of Banyo.
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East Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms. Geographically, it covers about 12,000,000 km², or about 28% of the Asian continent and about 15% bigger than the area of Europe. More than 1.
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Genetics is the science of heredity and variation in living organisms.[1][2] Knowledge of the inheritance of characteristics has been implicitly used since prehistoric times for improving crop plants and animals through selective breeding.
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In general, a critical period is a limited time in which an event can occur, usually to result in some kind of transformation. A "critical period" in developmental psychology and developmental biology is a time in the early stages of an organism's life during which it displays a
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Developmental psychology, also known as Human Development, is the scientific study of progressive psychological changes that occur in human beings as they age. Originally concerned with infants and children, and later other periods of great change such as adolescence and
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Cognition is a diffuse term, used in different ways by different disciplines. In psychology, it refers to an information processing view of an individual's psychological functions.
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In music theory, the term interval describes the difference in pitch between two notes. Although frequently used in connection with intervals, the term "distance" does not adequately describe the physics and subjective effects of two interacting frequencies.
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Episode no. Season 1
Episode 16
Guest stars Barry Morse
Carroll O’Connor
Grace Lee Whitney
Written by Leslie Stevens
Directed by Leslie Stevens
Photographed by John M. Nickolaus
Production no.
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Episode 16
Guest stars Barry Morse
Carroll O’Connor
Grace Lee Whitney
Written by Leslie Stevens
Directed by Leslie Stevens
Photographed by John M. Nickolaus
Production no.
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Centuries: 18th century - 19th century - 20th century
1870s 1880s 1890s - 1900s - 1910s 1920s 1930s
1900 1901 1902 1903 1904
1905 1906 1907 1908 1909
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1870s 1880s 1890s - 1900s - 1910s 1920s 1930s
1900 1901 1902 1903 1904
1905 1906 1907 1908 1909
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Events and trends
Technology
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The term relative pitch may denote:
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- the distance of a musical note from a set point of reference, e.g. "three octaves above middle C"
- a musician's ability to identify the intervals between given tones, regardless of their relation to concert pitch (A = 440 Hz)
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Pitch is the perceived fundamental frequency of a sound. While the actual fundamental frequency can be precisely determined through physical measurement, it may differ from the perceived pitch because of overtones, or partials, in the sound.
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hertz (symbol: Hz) is the SI unit of frequency. Its base unit is cycle/s or s-1 (also called inverse seconds, reciprocal seconds). In English, hertz is used as both singular and plural.
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Herod_Archelaus
