Information about Parsimony
Parsimony is a 'less is better' concept of frugality/economy/stinginess or caution in arriving at a hypothesis or course of action. The word derives from Middle English parcimony, from Latin parsimonia, from parsus, past participle of parcere: to spare.
In systematics, maximum parsimony is a cladistic "optimality criterion" based on the principle of parsimony. Under maximum parsimony, the preferred phylogenetic tree is the tree that requires the least number of evolutionary changes.
In biogeography, parsimony is used to infer ancient migrations of species or populations by observing the geographic distribution and relationships of existing organisms. Given the phylogenetic tree, ancestral migrations are inferred to be those that require the minimum amount of total movement.
Parsimony is also a factor in statistics: in general, mathematical models with the smallest number of parameters are preferred as each parameter introduced into the model adds some uncertainty to it. Additionally, adding too many parameters leads to "connect-the-dots" curve-fitting which has little predictive power. In general terms, it may be said that applied statisticians (such as process control engineers) value parsimony quite highly, whereas mathematicians prefer to have a more predictive model even if a large number of parameters are required.
Hesperornithes and others[1][2] provide cases where a parsimonious approach does not guarantee to arrive at a correct conclusion, and if based on incorrect working hypotheses or interpretations of incomplete data may even strongly support a false conclusion:
For another example using a more familiar subject, consider the attempts to determine the relationships of the cockatoos, namely such taxa as the Gang-gang Cockatoo, the Galah, and the popular pet, the cockatiel. It becomes obvious that parsimony is an extremely powerful tool if the researcher is able to interpret correctly the significance of the data to the case in question, and is able to relate and put it into context inter se. Failure to fulfil these conditions will, speaking figuratively, dull Occam's razor fairly quickly.
Science
In science, parsimony is preference for the least complex explanation for an observation. This is generally regarded as good when judging hypotheses. Occam's razor also states the "principle of parsimony".In systematics, maximum parsimony is a cladistic "optimality criterion" based on the principle of parsimony. Under maximum parsimony, the preferred phylogenetic tree is the tree that requires the least number of evolutionary changes.
In biogeography, parsimony is used to infer ancient migrations of species or populations by observing the geographic distribution and relationships of existing organisms. Given the phylogenetic tree, ancestral migrations are inferred to be those that require the minimum amount of total movement.
Parsimony is also a factor in statistics: in general, mathematical models with the smallest number of parameters are preferred as each parameter introduced into the model adds some uncertainty to it. Additionally, adding too many parameters leads to "connect-the-dots" curve-fitting which has little predictive power. In general terms, it may be said that applied statisticians (such as process control engineers) value parsimony quite highly, whereas mathematicians prefer to have a more predictive model even if a large number of parameters are required.
Hesperornithes and others[1][2] provide cases where a parsimonious approach does not guarantee to arrive at a correct conclusion, and if based on incorrect working hypotheses or interpretations of incomplete data may even strongly support a false conclusion:
When parsimony ceases to be a guideline and is instead elevated to an ex cathedra pronouncement, parsimony analysis ceases to be science.[3]
For another example using a more familiar subject, consider the attempts to determine the relationships of the cockatoos, namely such taxa as the Gang-gang Cockatoo, the Galah, and the popular pet, the cockatiel. It becomes obvious that parsimony is an extremely powerful tool if the researcher is able to interpret correctly the significance of the data to the case in question, and is able to relate and put it into context inter se. Failure to fulfil these conditions will, speaking figuratively, dull Occam's razor fairly quickly.
Penal ethics
In penal theory and the philosophy of punishment, parsimony refers specifically to taking care in the distribution of punishment in order to avoid excessive punishment. In the utilitarian approach to the philosophy of punishment, Jeremy Bentham's "parsimony principle" states that any punishment greater than is required to achieve its end is unjust. The concept is related but not identical to the legal concept of proportionality. Parsimony is a key consideration of the modern restorative justice, and is a component of utilitarian approaches to punishment, as well as the penal abolitionism movement. Bentham believed that true parsimony would require punishment to be individualised to take account of the sensibility of the individual – an individual more sensitive to punishment should be given a proportionately lesser one, since otherwise needless pain would be inflicted. Later utilitarian writers have tended to abandon this idea, in large part due to the impracticality of determining each alleged criminal's relative sensitivity to specific punishments. For a discussion on how well just deserts theory applies parsimony.[4]See also
References
1. ^ Lee, M. S. Y. (2002): Divergent evolution, hierarchy and cladistics. Zool. Scripta 31(2): 217-219. doi:10.1046/j.1463-6409.2002.00101.x PDF fulltext
2. ^
3. ^
4. ^ Tonry, Michael (2005): Obsolescence and Immanence in Penal Theory and Policy. Columbia Law Review 105: 1233-1275. PDF fulltext
2. ^
3. ^
4. ^ Tonry, Michael (2005): Obsolescence and Immanence in Penal Theory and Policy. Columbia Law Review 105: 1233-1275. PDF fulltext
External links
Science (from the Latin scientia, 'knowledge'), in the broadest sense, refers to any systematic knowledge or practice.[1] Examples of the broader use included political science and computer science, which are not incorrectly named, but rather named according to
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
A hypothesis (from Greek ὑπόθεσις) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between multiple phenomena.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
additional references or sources for verification.
* It may be too long. Some content may need to be summarized or split.
Please help [ improve the article] or discuss these issues on the talk page.
..... Click the link for more information.
* It may be too long. Some content may need to be summarized or split.
Please help [ improve the article] or discuss these issues on the talk page.
..... Click the link for more information.
Biological systematics is the study of the diversity of life on the planet Earth, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time. Relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees (synonyms: phylogenic trees, phylogenies).
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Maximum parsimony, often simply referred to as "parsimony," is a non-parametric statistical method commonly used in computational phylogenetics for estimating phylogenies. Under maximum parsimony, the preferred phylogenetic tree is the tree that requires the least number of
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Cladistics is a philosophy of classification that arranges organisms only by their order of branching in an evolutionary tree and not by their morphological similarity, in the words of Luria et al. (1981).
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
A phylogenetic tree, also called an evolutionary tree, is a tree showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities that are believed to have a common ancestor.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of biodiversity over space and time. It aims to reveal where organisms live, at what abundance, and why.[1]
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Historical migration of human populations begins with the movement of Homo erectus out of Africa across Eurasia about a million years ago. Homo sapiens appears to have colonized all of Africa about 150 millennia ago, moved out of Africa some 80 millennia ago, and
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
species is one of the basic units of biological classification. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
population is the collection of people or organisms of a particular species living in a given geographic area or mortality, and migration, though the field encompasses many dimensions of population change including the family (marriage and divorce), public health, work and the
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data. It is applicable to a wide variety of academic disciplines, from the physical and social sciences to the humanities.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Parameters, in the plural form, has recently become popular with non-technical users to mean limits, but this should not be confused with the word's technical meaning.
In mathematics, statistics, and the mathematical sciences, parameters (L: auxiliary measure
..... Click the link for more information.
In mathematics, statistics, and the mathematical sciences, parameters (L: auxiliary measure
..... Click the link for more information.
Hesperornithes
Fürbringer, 1888
Order: Hesperornithiformes
Sharpe 1899
Families
Enaliornithidae
Baptornithidae
Hesperornithidae
Synonyms
Odontornithes Marsh, 1873 (partim)
..... Click the link for more information.
Fürbringer, 1888
Order: Hesperornithiformes
Sharpe 1899
Families
Enaliornithidae
Baptornithidae
Hesperornithidae
Synonyms
Odontornithes Marsh, 1873 (partim)
..... Click the link for more information.
Ex Cathedra is a British choir, and in particular is the flagship early music ensemble for Birmingham and the West Midlands in England. It performs choral music spanning the 15th to 21st centuries, and regularly commissions new works.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Cacatuidae
GR Gray, 1840
Subfamily
Microglossinae
Calyptorhynchinae
Cacatuinae
A cockatoo is any of the 21 bird species belonging to the family Cacatuidae.
..... Click the link for more information.
GR Gray, 1840
Subfamily
Microglossinae
Calyptorhynchinae
Cacatuinae
A cockatoo is any of the 21 bird species belonging to the family Cacatuidae.
..... Click the link for more information.
Callocephalon
Lesson, 1837
Species: C. fimbriatum
Binomial name
Callocephalon fimbriatum
(Grant, J.
..... Click the link for more information.
Lesson, 1837
Species: C. fimbriatum
Binomial name
Callocephalon fimbriatum
(Grant, J.
..... Click the link for more information.
Eolophus
Species: E. roseicapillus
Binomial name
Eolophus roseicapillus
Vieillot, 1817
..... Click the link for more information.
Species: E. roseicapillus
Binomial name
Eolophus roseicapillus
Vieillot, 1817
..... Click the link for more information.
Nymphicus
Wagler, 1832
Species: N. hollandicus
Binomial name
Nymphicus hollandicus
(Kerr, 1792)
..... Click the link for more information.
Wagler, 1832
Species: N. hollandicus
Binomial name
Nymphicus hollandicus
(Kerr, 1792)
..... Click the link for more information.
additional references or sources for verification.
* It may be too long. Some content may need to be summarized or split.
Please help [ improve the article] or discuss these issues on the talk page.
..... Click the link for more information.
* It may be too long. Some content may need to be summarized or split.
Please help [ improve the article] or discuss these issues on the talk page.
..... Click the link for more information.
Punishment is the practice of imposing something unpleasant or aversive on a person or animal in response to an unwanted, disobedient or morally wrong behavior.
..... Click the link for more information.
Word history
..... Click the link for more information.
Utilitarianism is the ethical doctrine that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall utility. It is thus a form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome—the ends justify the means.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Jeremy Bentham (IPA: ['benθəm]) (26 February [O.S. 15 February 15] 1748) – June 6, 1832) was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Proportionality is a principle in law which although related covers two distinct concepts. Within municipal (domestic) law it is used to covey the idea that the punishment of an offender should fit the crime.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Restorative justice is commonly known as a theory of criminal justice that focuses on crime as an act against another individual or community rather than the state. The victim plays a major role in the process and may receive some type of restitution from the offender.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Sensibility refers to an acute perception of or responsiveness toward something, such as the emotions of another. This concept emerged in eighteenth-century Britain, and was closely associated with studies of sense perception as the means through which knowledge is gathered.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
additional references or sources for verification.
* It may be too long. Some content may need to be summarized or split.
Please help [ improve the article] or discuss these issues on the talk page.
..... Click the link for more information.
* It may be too long. Some content may need to be summarized or split.
Please help [ improve the article] or discuss these issues on the talk page.
..... Click the link for more information.
Maximum parsimony, often simply referred to as "parsimony," is a non-parametric statistical method commonly used in computational phylogenetics for estimating phylogenies. Under maximum parsimony, the preferred phylogenetic tree is the tree that requires the least number of
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Cladistics is a philosophy of classification that arranges organisms only by their order of branching in an evolutionary tree and not by their morphological similarity, in the words of Luria et al. (1981).
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Karl Raimund Popper, CH, FRS, FBA (July 28, 1902 – September 17, 1994) was an Austrian and British[1] philosopher and a professor at the London School of Economics.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
This article is copied from an article on Wikipedia.org - the free encyclopedia created and edited by online user community. The text was not checked or edited by anyone on our staff. Although the vast majority of the wikipedia encyclopedia articles provide accurate and timely information please do not assume the accuracy of any particular article. This article is distributed under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License.
Herod_Archelaus
