Information about Microform
Microforms are processed films that carry images of documents to users for transmission, storage, reading and printing. Microform images are commonly about 25 times reduced from the original document size. For special purposes, greater optical reductions may be used.
All microform images may be provided as positives or negatives. For use in readers and printers negative images are preferred, that is with a dark background; the low light available to be scattered gives cleaner images.
Three formats are common: microfilm (reels), aperture cards and microfiche (flat sheets).
For example, when airlines demand archival engineering drawings to support purchased equipment (in case the vendor goes out of business), (as of 1999) they normally specified punch-card-mounted microfilm with an industry-standard indexing system punched into the card. This permits automated reproduction, as well as permitting mechanical card-sorting equipment to sort and select microfilm drawings.
Aperture card mounted microfilm is roughly 3% of the size and space of conventional paper or vellum engineering drawings. Some military contracts around 1980 began to specify digital storage of engineering and maintenance data because the expenses were even lower than microfilm, but these programs are now finding it difficult to purchase new readers for the old formats.
Microfilm first saw military use during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. During the Siege of Paris, the only way for the provincial government in Tours to communicate with Paris was by pigeon post, and, as the pigeons could not carry paper dispatches, the Tours government turned to microfilm. Using a microphotography unit evacuated from Paris before the siege, clerks in Tours photograped paper dispatches and compressed them to microfilm, which were carried by homing pigeons into Paris and projected by magic lantern while clerks copied the dispatches onto paper.
By the 1980s, microfilming had become standard policy in libraries as a means of reformatting books and newspapers. Microfilming was a space-saving measure; once items were put onto film, they could be removed from circulation and additional shelf space would be made available for rapidly expanding collections. The use of microfilm in libraries was also seen as a preservation strategy; books and newspapers that were deemed in danger of decay could be preserved on film and thus access and use could be increased.
Portable readers are plastic devices that fold for carrying, when open they project an image from microfiche on to a reflective screen.
A microfilm printer contains a xerographic copying process, like a photocopier. The image to be printed is projected with synchronised movement on to the drum. These devices offer either small image preview for the operator or full size image preview, when it is called a reader printer. Microform printers usually accept positive or negative films, to give positive images on paper.
16 mm or 35 mm film to motion picture standard is used, usually unperforated. Roll microfilm is stored on open reels or put into cassettes.
The standard length for using roll film is 30.48 m (100 ft). One roll of 35 mm film may carry 600 images of large engineering drawings or 800 images of broadsheet newspaper pages. 16 mm film may carry 2400 images of letter sized images as a single stream of micro images along the film set so that lines of text are parallel to the sides of the film or 10000 small documents, perhaps cheques or betting slips, with both sides of the originals set side by side on the film.
Aperture cards are Hollerith cards into which a hole has been cut. A 35 mm microfilm chip is mounted in the hole inside of a clear plastic sleeve, or secured over the aperture by an adhesive tape.
They are used for engineering drawings, for all engineering disciplines. There are libraries of these containing over 3 million cards. Aperture cards may be stored in drawers or in freestanding rotary units.
A microfiche is a flat film 105 x 148 mm in size, that is ISO A5. It carries a matrix of micro images. All microfiche are read with text parallel to the long side of the fiche. Frames may be landscape or portrait. Along the top of the fiche a title may be recorded for visual identification.
The most commonly used format is a portrait image of about 10 x 14 mm. Office size size papers or magazine pages require a reduction of 24 or 25. Microfiche are stored in open top envelopes which are put in drawers or boxes as file cards, or fitted into pockets in purpose made books.
Sheet film is supplied 105 mm by 148 mm, i.e. ISO A6. This is either processed by hand or using a dental X-ray processor. Camera film is supplied ready mounted in aperture cards. Aperture cards are developed, fixed and washed immediately after exposure by equipment fitted to the camera.
In a darkroom a single film may be inserted into a dark slide or the camera may be fitted with a roll film holder which after an exposure advances the film into a box and cuts the frame off the roll for processing as a single film.
For office documents a similar design may be used but bench standing. This is a smaller version of the camera described above. These are provided either with the choice of 16 or 35 mm film or accepting 16 mm film only. Non adjustable versions of the office camera are provided. These have a rigid frame or an enveloping box that holds a camera at a fixed position over a copy board. If this is to work at more than one reduction ratio there are a choice of lenses.
Some cameras expose a pattern of light, referred to as blips, to digitally identify each adjacent frame. This pattern is copied whenever the film is copied for searching.
Special purpose flow cameras film both sides of documents, putting both images side by side on 16 mm film. These cameras are used to record cheques and betting slips.
Equipment is available that accepts a data stream from a mainframe computer. This exposes film to produce images as if the stream had been sent to a line printer and the listing had been microfilmed. Because of the source one run may represent many thousands of pages.
Within the equipment character images are made by a light source, this is the negative of text on paper. COM is sometimes processed normally. Other applications require that image appears as a conventional negative; the film is then reversal processed. This outputs either 16 mm film or fiche pages on a 105 mm roll.
Because listing characters are a simple design, a reduction ratio of 50 gives good quality and puts about 300 pages on a microfiche. A microfilm plotter, sometimes called an aperture card plotter, accepts a stream that might be sent to a computer pen plotter. It produces corresponding frames of microfilm. These produce microfilm as 35 or 16 mm film or aperture cards.
Silver halide film is a slow version of camera film with a robust top coat. It is suitable for prints or for use as an intermediate from which further prints may be produced. The result is a negative copy.
Diazo-sensitised film for dye coupling in ammonia gives blue or black dye positive copies. The black image film can be used for further copying.
Vesicular film is sensitised with a diazo dye, which after exposure is developed by heat. Where light has come to the film remains clear, in the areas under the dark image the diazo compound is destroyed quickly, releasing millions of minute bubbles of nitrogen into the film. This produces an image that diffuses light. It produces a good black appearance in a reader, but it cannot be used for further copying.
Transparent jackets are made A5 size each with 6 pockets into which strips of 16 mm film may be inserted, so creating microfiche. Equipment allows an operator to insert strips from a roll of film. This is particularly useful as frames may be added to a fiche at any time. The pockets are made using a thin film so that duplicates may be made from the assembled fiche.
Another type of conversion is microform to digital. This is done using an optical scanner that projects the film onto a CCD array and captures it in a raw digital format. Since the different types of microform are dissimilar in shape and size, the scanners are usually able to handle only one type. However, there are some that have the possibility of swapping modules for the different microform types. Software (normally on the scanner itself) is then used to convert the raw capture into a standard image format for archival.
However, for the resulting files to be useful, they must be organized in some way. This can be accomplished in a variety of different ways, dependent on the source media and the desired usage. In this regard, aperture cards with Hollerith information are probably the easiest since image data can be extracted from the card itself if the scanner supports it. Some types of microfilm will contain a counter next to the images, these can be referenced to an already existing database. Other microfilm reels will have a 'blip' system: small marks next to the images of varying lengths used to indicate document hierarchy (longest: root, long: branch, short: leaf). If the scanner is able to capture and process these then the image files can be arranged in the same manner. For other types, the data must be entered in manually - a very time consuming process.
Gelatin (also gelatine , from French gélatine) is a translucent, colourless, brittle, nearly tasteless solid substance, extracted from the collagen inside animals' connective tissue.
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All microform images may be provided as positives or negatives. For use in readers and printers negative images are preferred, that is with a dark background; the low light available to be scattered gives cleaner images.
Three formats are common: microfilm (reels), aperture cards and microfiche (flat sheets).
Uses
Systems that mount microfilm images in punched cards have been widely used for archival storage of engineering information.For example, when airlines demand archival engineering drawings to support purchased equipment (in case the vendor goes out of business), (as of 1999) they normally specified punch-card-mounted microfilm with an industry-standard indexing system punched into the card. This permits automated reproduction, as well as permitting mechanical card-sorting equipment to sort and select microfilm drawings.
Aperture card mounted microfilm is roughly 3% of the size and space of conventional paper or vellum engineering drawings. Some military contracts around 1980 began to specify digital storage of engineering and maintenance data because the expenses were even lower than microfilm, but these programs are now finding it difficult to purchase new readers for the old formats.
Microfilm first saw military use during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. During the Siege of Paris, the only way for the provincial government in Tours to communicate with Paris was by pigeon post, and, as the pigeons could not carry paper dispatches, the Tours government turned to microfilm. Using a microphotography unit evacuated from Paris before the siege, clerks in Tours photograped paper dispatches and compressed them to microfilm, which were carried by homing pigeons into Paris and projected by magic lantern while clerks copied the dispatches onto paper.
By the 1980s, microfilming had become standard policy in libraries as a means of reformatting books and newspapers. Microfilming was a space-saving measure; once items were put onto film, they could be removed from circulation and additional shelf space would be made available for rapidly expanding collections. The use of microfilm in libraries was also seen as a preservation strategy; books and newspapers that were deemed in danger of decay could be preserved on film and thus access and use could be increased.
Advantages
The medium has numerous advantages:- It is compact, with far smaller storage costs than paper documents. Normally 98 document size pages fit on one fiche, reducing to about 0.25% original material.
- It is cheaper to distribute than paper copy. Most microfiche services get a bulk discount on reproduction rights, and have lower reproduction and carriage costs than a comparable amount of printed paper.
- It is a stable archival form when properly processed. Most library microfiche use polyester with silver halide dyes in hard gelatin, with an estimated life of 500 years in air-conditioning. Unfortunately, in tropical climates with high humidity, fungus eats the gelatin used to bind the silver halide. Thus, diazo-based systems with lower archival lives (20 years) which have polyester or epoxy surfaces are used.
- Since it is analog (an actual image of the original data), it is easy to view. Unlike digital media, the data format is instantly comprehensible to persons literate in the language; the only additional equipment that is needed is a simple magnifying glass. This reduces the possibility of obsolescence.
Disadvantages
- The principal disadvantage of microfiche is that the image is too small to read with the naked eye. Libraries must use special readers that project full-size images on a ground-glass screen.
- A significant disadvantage is that when stored in the highest-density drawers, it is easy to misfile a fiche, which is thereafter unavailable. Some libraries therefore keep the microfiche cabinet in a restricted area, and retrieve fiches on demand. Some fiche services use lower-density drawers with labelled pockets for each card.
- Another disadvantage is that a conventional photocopier cannot reproduce the images. Libraries using microfiche often have a few viewers that can produce a photocopy of an image, for a nominal fee.
- The final disadvantage (endemic to all analog media) is that microfiche can be reproduced only a limited number of generations, while data stored on digital media does not degenerate and control software often include error detection and correction schemes.
Readers and printers
Desktop readers are boxes with a translucent screen at the front on to which is projected an image from a microform. They have suitable fittings for whatever microform is in use. They may offer a choice of magnifications. They often have powered movement of roll film. When coding blips are recorded on the film a reader is used that can read the blips to find any required image.Portable readers are plastic devices that fold for carrying, when open they project an image from microfiche on to a reflective screen.
A microfilm printer contains a xerographic copying process, like a photocopier. The image to be printed is projected with synchronised movement on to the drum. These devices offer either small image preview for the operator or full size image preview, when it is called a reader printer. Microform printers usually accept positive or negative films, to give positive images on paper.
Media
- Flat film
- Microfilm
)
Microfilm roll
The standard length for using roll film is 30.48 m (100 ft). One roll of 35 mm film may carry 600 images of large engineering drawings or 800 images of broadsheet newspaper pages. 16 mm film may carry 2400 images of letter sized images as a single stream of micro images along the film set so that lines of text are parallel to the sides of the film or 10000 small documents, perhaps cheques or betting slips, with both sides of the originals set side by side on the film.
- Aperture cards
)
Aperture card with hollerith info
They are used for engineering drawings, for all engineering disciplines. There are libraries of these containing over 3 million cards. Aperture cards may be stored in drawers or in freestanding rotary units.
- Microfiche
)
A duped jacket fiche
The most commonly used format is a portrait image of about 10 x 14 mm. Office size size papers or magazine pages require a reduction of 24 or 25. Microfiche are stored in open top envelopes which are put in drawers or boxes as file cards, or fitted into pockets in purpose made books.
Image creation
To create microform media, a planetary camera is mounted with vertical axis above a copy that is stationary during exposure. A flow camera moves copy smoothly through the camera to expose film which moves with the reduced image. Alternatively, it may be produced by computers, i.e. COM (computer output microfilm).Film
Normally microfilming uses high resolution panchromatic high resolution monochrome stock. Positive color film giving good reproduction and high resolution can also be used. Roll film is provided 16, 35 and 105 mm wide in lengths of 30 metres (100 feet) and longer, and is usually unperforated. Roll film is developed, fixed and washed by continuous processors.Sheet film is supplied 105 mm by 148 mm, i.e. ISO A6. This is either processed by hand or using a dental X-ray processor. Camera film is supplied ready mounted in aperture cards. Aperture cards are developed, fixed and washed immediately after exposure by equipment fitted to the camera.
Cameras
- Flat film
In a darkroom a single film may be inserted into a dark slide or the camera may be fitted with a roll film holder which after an exposure advances the film into a box and cuts the frame off the roll for processing as a single film.
- Roll film
For office documents a similar design may be used but bench standing. This is a smaller version of the camera described above. These are provided either with the choice of 16 or 35 mm film or accepting 16 mm film only. Non adjustable versions of the office camera are provided. These have a rigid frame or an enveloping box that holds a camera at a fixed position over a copy board. If this is to work at more than one reduction ratio there are a choice of lenses.
Some cameras expose a pattern of light, referred to as blips, to digitally identify each adjacent frame. This pattern is copied whenever the film is copied for searching.
- Flow roll film cameras
Special purpose flow cameras film both sides of documents, putting both images side by side on 16 mm film. These cameras are used to record cheques and betting slips.
- Microfiche camera
- Computer Output Microfilm
)
Computer Output Microfilm card
Within the equipment character images are made by a light source, this is the negative of text on paper. COM is sometimes processed normally. Other applications require that image appears as a conventional negative; the film is then reversal processed. This outputs either 16 mm film or fiche pages on a 105 mm roll.
Because listing characters are a simple design, a reduction ratio of 50 gives good quality and puts about 300 pages on a microfiche. A microfilm plotter, sometimes called an aperture card plotter, accepts a stream that might be sent to a computer pen plotter. It produces corresponding frames of microfilm. These produce microfilm as 35 or 16 mm film or aperture cards.
Duplication
All regular microfilm copying involves contact exposure under pressure. Then the film is processed to provide a permanent image. Hand copying of single fiche or aperture cards uses exposure over a light box and individually processing of the film. Roll films are contact exposed round a glass cylinder containing a lamp. Processing may be in the same machine or separately.Silver halide film is a slow version of camera film with a robust top coat. It is suitable for prints or for use as an intermediate from which further prints may be produced. The result is a negative copy.
Diazo-sensitised film for dye coupling in ammonia gives blue or black dye positive copies. The black image film can be used for further copying.
Vesicular film is sensitised with a diazo dye, which after exposure is developed by heat. Where light has come to the film remains clear, in the areas under the dark image the diazo compound is destroyed quickly, releasing millions of minute bubbles of nitrogen into the film. This produces an image that diffuses light. It produces a good black appearance in a reader, but it cannot be used for further copying.
Format conversion
These conversions may be applied to camera output or to release copies. Single microfiche are cut from rolls of 105 mm film. A bench top device is available that enables an operator to cut exposed frames of roll film and fit these into ready made aperture cards.Transparent jackets are made A5 size each with 6 pockets into which strips of 16 mm film may be inserted, so creating microfiche. Equipment allows an operator to insert strips from a roll of film. This is particularly useful as frames may be added to a fiche at any time. The pockets are made using a thin film so that duplicates may be made from the assembled fiche.
Digital conversion
)
Scanning microfilm
However, for the resulting files to be useful, they must be organized in some way. This can be accomplished in a variety of different ways, dependent on the source media and the desired usage. In this regard, aperture cards with Hollerith information are probably the easiest since image data can be extracted from the card itself if the scanner supports it. Some types of microfilm will contain a counter next to the images, these can be referenced to an already existing database. Other microfilm reels will have a 'blip' system: small marks next to the images of varying lengths used to indicate document hierarchy (longest: root, long: branch, short: leaf). If the scanner is able to capture and process these then the image files can be arranged in the same manner. For other types, the data must be entered in manually - a very time consuming process.
See also
External links
- The Library of Congress Photoduplication Service
- The Northeast Document Conservation Center
- Glossary of Microfilm Terms
- Glossary of Microfilm Terms
- Permanent Visual Archive: Longterm Storage of Digital Data on Microfilm
- Microfiche usage and Digital Conversion
- Microfilm usage and Digital Conversion
- U.S. Government Scientific and Technical Information by Subject Category on Microfiche available from the National Technical Information Service
Photographic film is a sheet of plastic (polyester, nitrocellulose or cellulose acetate) coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive silver halide salts (bonded by gelatin) with variable crystal sizes that determine the sensitivity, contrast and resolution of the film.
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punch card or punched card (or punchcard or Hollerith card or IBM card), is a piece of stiff paper that contains digital information represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions.
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punch card or punched card (or punchcard or Hollerith card or IBM card), is a piece of stiff paper that contains digital information represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions.
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airline provides air transport services for passengers or freight, generally with a recognized operating certificate or license. Airlines lease or own their aircraft with which to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for mutual benefit.
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20th century - 21st century
1960s 1970s 1980s - 1990s - 2000s 2010s 2020s
1996 1997 1998 - 1999 - 2000 2001 2002
Year 1999 (MCMXCIX
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1960s 1970s 1980s - 1990s - 2000s 2010s 2020s
1996 1997 1998 - 1999 - 2000 2001 2002
Year 1999 (MCMXCIX
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19th century - 20th century - 21st century
1950s 1960s 1970s - 1980s - 1990s 2000s 2010s
1977 1978 1979 - 1980 - 1981 1982 1983
Year 1980 (MCMLXXX
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1950s 1960s 1970s - 1980s - 1990s 2000s 2010s
1977 1978 1979 - 1980 - 1981 1982 1983
Year 1980 (MCMLXXX
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Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War (19 July 1870-10 May 1871) was a conflict between France and Prussia, which was backed by the North German Confederation and the South German states of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria.
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Siege of Paris by Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier. Oil on canvas.
Date September 19 1870 – January 28 1871
Location Paris, France
Result Decisive German victory
Combatants
Prussia, Baden,
Bavaria, Württemberg
(later German Empire) France
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Date September 19 1870 – January 28 1871
Location Paris, France
Result Decisive German victory
Combatants
Prussia, Baden,
Bavaria, Württemberg
(later German Empire) France
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Commune of
Tours
Town hall, Victor Laloux, architect (1896-1904)
Location
Coordinates
Administration
Country
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Tours
Town hall, Victor Laloux, architect (1896-1904)
Location
Coordinates
Administration
Country
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Pigeon Post
Author Arthur Ransome
Cover artist Arthur Ransome
Country United Kingdom
Language English
Series Swallows and Amazons
Genre(s) Children's books
Publisher Jonathan Cape
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Author Arthur Ransome
Cover artist Arthur Ransome
Country United Kingdom
Language English
Series Swallows and Amazons
Genre(s) Children's books
Publisher Jonathan Cape
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Ville de Paris
City flag City coat of arms
Motto: Fluctuat nec mergitur
(Latin: "Tossed by the waves, she does not sink")
The Eiffel Tower in Paris, as seen from the esplanade du Trocadéro.
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City flag City coat of arms
Motto: Fluctuat nec mergitur
(Latin: "Tossed by the waves, she does not sink")
The Eiffel Tower in Paris, as seen from the esplanade du Trocadéro.
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The homing pigeon is a variety of domesticated Rock Pigeon (Columba livia) that has been selectively bred to be able to find its way home over extremely long distances.
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Magic lantern may mean:
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- magic lantern, the ancestor of the modern slide projector
- Magic Lantern (software), the FBI's keylogger.
- The Magic Lantern is the name of a theater in Prague which served as the headquarters for the reform movement (see Velvet Revolution
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library is a collection of information, sources, resources, and services: it is organized for use and maintained by a public body, an institution, or a private individual. In the more traditional sense, a library is a collection of books.
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Polyester (aka Terylene) is a category of polymers which contain the ester functional group in their main chain. Although there are many forms of polyesters, the term "polyester" is most commonly used to refe'Bold text'Bold text'Bold text
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A silver halide is one of the compounds formed between silver and one of the halogens — silver bromide (AgBr), chloride (AgCl) and iodide (AgI). As a group, they are often referred to as the silver halides, and are often given the pseudo-chemical notation AgX.
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For the art collective, see .
Gelatin (also gelatine , from French gélatine) is a translucent, colourless, brittle, nearly tasteless solid substance, extracted from the collagen inside animals' connective tissue.
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Eukarya
Whittaker & Margulis, 1978
(unranked) Opisthokonta
Kingdom: Fungi
(L., 1753) R.T. Moore, 1980[1]
Subkingdom/Phyla
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Whittaker & Margulis, 1978
(unranked) Opisthokonta
Kingdom: Fungi
(L., 1753) R.T. Moore, 1980[1]
Subkingdom/Phyla
- Chytridiomycota
- Blastocladiomycota
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A digital system is one that uses discrete values (often electrical voltages), representing numbers or non-numeric symbols such as letters or icons, for input, processing, transmission, storage, or display, rather than a continuous range of values (ie, as in an analog system).
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Ground glass is glass whose surface has been ground to produce a flat but rough (matte) finish. A sheet of ground glass is used for the manual focusing of both still and motion picture cameras.
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A photocopier is a machine which makes paper copies of documents and other visual images quickly and cheaply. Most current photocopiers use a technology called xerography, a dry process using heat.
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A photocopier is a machine which makes paper copies of documents and other visual images quickly and cheaply. Most current photocopiers use a technology called xerography, a dry process using heat.
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16 mm film refers to a popular, economical gauge of film used for motion pictures. Other common film gauges include 8 mm and 35 mm. 16 mm refers to the width of the negative.
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35 mm film is the basic film gauge most commonly used for both still photography and motion pictures, and remains relatively unchanged since its introduction in 1892 by William Dickson and Thomas Edison, using film stock supplied by George Eastman.
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Film is a term that encompasses individual motion pictures, the field of film as an art form, and the motion picture industry. Films are produced by recording images from the world with cameras, or by creating images using animation techniques or special effects.
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punch card or punched card (or punchcard or Hollerith card or IBM card), is a piece of stiff paper that contains digital information represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions.
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camera is a device used to capture images, as still photographs or as sequences of moving images (movies or videos). The term as well as the modern-day camera evolved from the camera obscura
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Panchromatic film is a type of black-and-white photographic film that is sensitive to all wavelengths of visible light. A panchromatic film therefore produces a realistic image of a scene.
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ISO 216 sizes
(millimeter>mm × mm)
A Series
A0 841 × 1189
A1 594 × 841
A2 420 × 594
A3 297 × 420
A4 210 × 297
A5 148 × 210
A6 105 × 148
A7 74 × 105
A8 52 × 74
A9 37 × 52
A10 26 × 37
B Series
B0 1000 × 1414
B1 707 × 1000
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(millimeter>mm × mm)
A Series
A0 841 × 1189
A1 594 × 841
A2 420 × 594
A3 297 × 420
A4 210 × 297
A5 148 × 210
A6 105 × 148
A7 74 × 105
A8 52 × 74
A9 37 × 52
A10 26 × 37
B Series
B0 1000 × 1414
B1 707 × 1000
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darkroom is a workspace, usually a separate area in a building or a vehicle, made dark to allow photographers to use light-sensitive materials to develop film and photographic paper to make photographic prints.
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This article is copied from an article on Wikipedia.org - the free encyclopedia created and edited by online user community. The text was not checked or edited by anyone on our staff. Although the vast majority of the wikipedia encyclopedia articles provide accurate and timely information please do not assume the accuracy of any particular article. This article is distributed under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License.
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