Information about Ephedrine
Ephedrine (EPH) is a sympathomimetic amine similar in structure to the synthetic derivatives amphetamine and methamphetamine. Ephedrine is commonly used as a stimulant, appetite suppressant, concentration aid, decongestant and to treat hypotension associated with regional anaesthesia. Chemically, it is an alkaloid derived from various plants in the genus Ephedra (family Ephedraceae). It is most usually marketed in the hydrochloride and sulfate forms.
In traditional Chinese medicines, the herb ma huang (Ephedra sinica) contains ephedrine and pseudoephedrine as its principal active constituents. The same is true of other herbal products containing extracts from Ephedra species. Nagayoshi Nagai was the first one to isolate ephedrine from Ephedra vulgaris in 1885. The substance called soma mentioned in old Hindu books such as the Rig Veda, may have been ephedra extract.
The production of ephedrine in China has become a multi-million dollar export industry. Companies producing for export extract US$13 million worth of ephedrine from 30,000 tons of ephedra annually, 10 times the amount that is used in traditional Chinese medicine.[1]
The isomer which is marketed is (-)-(1R,2S)-ephedrine.[2]
As with other phenylethylamines, it is also somewhat chemically similar to methamphetamine, although the amphetamines are more potent and have additional biological effects.
Ephedrine may also be referred to as: (αR)-α-[(1S)-1-(methylamino)ethyl]benzenemethanol, α-[1-(methylamino)ethyl]benzyl alcohol, or L-erythro-2-(methylamino)-1-phenylpropan-1-ol. Ephedrine hydrochloride has a melting point of 187-188°C.[3]
Ephedrine increases post-synaptic noradrenergic receptor activity by (weakly) directly activating post-synaptic α-receptors and β-receptors, but the bulk of its effect comes from the pre-synaptic neuron being unable to distinguish between real adrenaline or noradrenaline from ephedrine. The ephedrine, mixed with noradrenaline, is transported through the noradrenaline reuptake complex and packaged (along with real noradrenaline) into vesicles that reside at the terminal button of a nerve cell.
As an alkaloid, having some small amount of ephedrine within a noradrenaline vesicle reduces the overall pH of the vesicle. This has the effect of increasing likelihood that the affected vesicle will be released during any subsequent action potential the nerve cell experiences. The nerve cells in question generally fire at some regular baseline rate; the effect of adding ephedrine is to increase the number of vesicles released during each action potential and possibly to extend the time during which noradrenaline has an opportunity to have an effect on the post-synaptic neuron by virtue of the fact that the reuptake complex has to process both noradrenaline AND ephedrine, presumably a longer process.
Ephedrine's mechanism of action on neurotransmission in the brain is wide. Its action as an agonist at most major noradrenaline receptors and its ability to increase the release of both dopamine and to a lesser extent, serotonin by the same mechanism as explained above for norepinephrine, is presumed to have a major role in its mechanism of action.
Because of ephedrine's ability to potentiate dopamine neurotransmission it is thought to have addictive properties by some researchers. The ability to potentiate serotonin and noradrenergic activity is clinically relevant, but is not thought to contribute to the potential for abuse.
While ephedrine's role in the serotonin system is less understood there is preliminary documentation of clinically significant agonism at excitory serotonin receptors, perhaps as a downstream response to the large release of norepinephrine in the nucleus accumbens (commonly referred to as the "pleasure center" of the brain). In mice, stereotypical behaviour was both easily induced by administration of ephedrine and it's primary alkaloids and reversed when serotonin antagonists were administered.
In traditional Chinese medicine, ephedrine has been used in the treatment of asthma and bronchitis for centuries.[6]
An ECA stack is a component found in thermogenic weight loss pills, composed of ephedrine, caffeine and aspirin (many supplement manufacturers include salicin instead of aspirin) working to speed up the metabolism and thus cause food energy to burn faster. The ECA stack is a popular supplement taken by body builders before workouts due to the increased amount of energy and alertness.
For many years, the US Coast Guard recommended ephedrine together with an equal 25 mg dose of promethazine to its sailors to combat seasickness. Promethazine manages nausea and ephedrine fights the ensuing drowsiness. Commonly referred to as the Coast Guard cocktail, ephedrine may still be available for prescription for this purpose.
Overdose can lead to death, although the approved dose is not likely to cause severe reactions when used as directed.
Ephedrine can also lead to damage of the brain receptors over a period of high usage; this is because of its constant action on the neurochemicals. It also leads to high increase in blood pressure which over time can lead to damage in the blood vessels.
Wellbutrin is an example of an antidepressant with an amphetamine-like structure similar to ephedrine. It has a similar action but also releases serotonin from presynaptic clefts. It should not be used with ephedrine as it may increase the likelihood of the above side effects.
Ephedrine should be used with caution in patients with inadequate fluid replacement, impaired adrenal function, hypoxia, hypercapnia, acidosis, hypertension, hyperthyroidism, prostatic hypertrophy, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, during delivery if maternal BP > 130/80 mmHg, and lactation.[7]
Contraindications for the use of ephedrine include: closed angle glaucoma, phaeochromocytoma, asymmetric septal hypertrophy (idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis), concomitant or recent (previous 14 days) monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) therapy, general anaesthesia with halogenated hydrocarbons (particularly cyclopropane or halothane), tachyarrhythmias or ventricular fibrillation, hypersensitivity to ephedrine or other stimulants. Ephedrine should NOT be used at any time during pregnancy unless specifically indicated by a qualified physician and ONLY when other options are unavailable.[7]
Anecdotal reports have suggested that ephedrine helps studying, thinking, or concentrating to a greater extent than caffeine. Some students and some white-collar workers have used ephedrine (or Ephedra-containing herbal supplements) for this purpose, as well as some professional athletes and weightlifters. It is common for many athletes to use stimulants while exercising. Such use of ephedrine has been associated with stimulant dependence, as well as deaths from heatstroke in athletes and circulatory problems such as aortic aneurysm in weightlifters, though these side effects are rare.
As a phenylethylamine, ephedrine has a similar chemical structure to amphetamines. Ephedrine can be used in the synthesis of methamphetamine by chemical reduction; this has made ephedrine a highly sought-after chemical precursor in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine. The most popular method for reducing ephedrine to methamphetamine is similar to the Birch reduction, in that it uses anhydrous ammonia and lithium metal in the reaction. The second most popular method uses red phosphorus, iodine, and ephedrine in the reaction.
Through oxidation, ephedrine can be easily synthesized into methcathinone. Ephedrine is listed as a Table I precursor under the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.[8]
Ephedrine has been reported to cause both physical and psychological dependence after excessive long-term use. This is particularly true with oral forms of ephedrine, since parenteral administration is unlikely to occur over long periods.[7]
Several studies have recently compared the quantities of such neurotransmitters as serotonin, dopamine, glutamate, and epinephrine after concurrent administration of ephedrine and various amphetamine-like agents. The results showed that ephedrine has no neurotoxic effect nor has amphetamine counterparts.
Ephedrine increases serum dopamine levels minimally in comparison with an equivalent dose of dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine®). Dextromethamphetamine (Desoxyn®) raises dopamine levels dramatically (more than two times that of an equivalent dose of dextroamphetamine). This supports the general consensus that ephedrine has more of a peripheral action on the sympathetic nervous system, whereas amphetamines appear to cross the blood brain barrier more freely and tend to have a stronger central action. The fact that dopamine is believed to play a major role in the addiction response has been used in recent years as justification for controlling the distribution of dextroamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine, along with various other amphetamines.[10]
The House passed the Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005 as an amendment to the renewal of the USA PATRIOT Act. Signed into law by president George W. Bush on March 6, 2006, the act amended the US Code (21 USC 830) concerning the sale of ephedrine-containing products. The federal statute included the following requirements for merchants who sell these products:
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
In traditional Chinese medicines, the herb ma huang (Ephedra sinica) contains ephedrine and pseudoephedrine as its principal active constituents. The same is true of other herbal products containing extracts from Ephedra species. Nagayoshi Nagai was the first one to isolate ephedrine from Ephedra vulgaris in 1885. The substance called soma mentioned in old Hindu books such as the Rig Veda, may have been ephedra extract.
The production of ephedrine in China has become a multi-million dollar export industry. Companies producing for export extract US$13 million worth of ephedrine from 30,000 tons of ephedra annually, 10 times the amount that is used in traditional Chinese medicine.[1]
Chemistry
Ephedrine exhibits optical isomerism and has two chiral centres. By convention the enantiomers with opposite stereochemistry around the chiral centres are designated ephedrine, while pseudoephedrine has same stereochemistry around the chiral carbons. That is, (1R,2R)- and (1S,2S)-enantiomers are designated pseudoephedrine; while (1R,2S)- and (1S,2R)-enantiomers are designated ephedrine.The isomer which is marketed is (-)-(1R,2S)-ephedrine.[2]
As with other phenylethylamines, it is also somewhat chemically similar to methamphetamine, although the amphetamines are more potent and have additional biological effects.
Ephedrine may also be referred to as: (αR)-α-[(1S)-1-(methylamino)ethyl]benzenemethanol, α-[1-(methylamino)ethyl]benzyl alcohol, or L-erythro-2-(methylamino)-1-phenylpropan-1-ol. Ephedrine hydrochloride has a melting point of 187-188°C.[3]
Mode of action
Ephedrine is a sympathomimetic amine - that is, its principal mechanism of action relies on its direct and indirect actions on the adrenergic receptor system, which is part of the sympathetic nervous system or SNS. Central nervous system or CNS involvement is present, but the predominant clinical effects are caused by involvement with the sympathetic segment of the peripheral nervous system due to the fact that while ephedrine does cross the blood-brain barrier, it doesn't do this very efficiently (efficient crossers with similar modes of action would include amphetamine and methamphetamine).Ephedrine increases post-synaptic noradrenergic receptor activity by (weakly) directly activating post-synaptic α-receptors and β-receptors, but the bulk of its effect comes from the pre-synaptic neuron being unable to distinguish between real adrenaline or noradrenaline from ephedrine. The ephedrine, mixed with noradrenaline, is transported through the noradrenaline reuptake complex and packaged (along with real noradrenaline) into vesicles that reside at the terminal button of a nerve cell.
As an alkaloid, having some small amount of ephedrine within a noradrenaline vesicle reduces the overall pH of the vesicle. This has the effect of increasing likelihood that the affected vesicle will be released during any subsequent action potential the nerve cell experiences. The nerve cells in question generally fire at some regular baseline rate; the effect of adding ephedrine is to increase the number of vesicles released during each action potential and possibly to extend the time during which noradrenaline has an opportunity to have an effect on the post-synaptic neuron by virtue of the fact that the reuptake complex has to process both noradrenaline AND ephedrine, presumably a longer process.
Ephedrine's mechanism of action on neurotransmission in the brain is wide. Its action as an agonist at most major noradrenaline receptors and its ability to increase the release of both dopamine and to a lesser extent, serotonin by the same mechanism as explained above for norepinephrine, is presumed to have a major role in its mechanism of action.
Because of ephedrine's ability to potentiate dopamine neurotransmission it is thought to have addictive properties by some researchers. The ability to potentiate serotonin and noradrenergic activity is clinically relevant, but is not thought to contribute to the potential for abuse.
While ephedrine's role in the serotonin system is less understood there is preliminary documentation of clinically significant agonism at excitory serotonin receptors, perhaps as a downstream response to the large release of norepinephrine in the nucleus accumbens (commonly referred to as the "pleasure center" of the brain). In mice, stereotypical behaviour was both easily induced by administration of ephedrine and it's primary alkaloids and reversed when serotonin antagonists were administered.
Clinical use
)
Ephedrine Sulphate (1932) Ephedrine Compound (1932) and Swan-Myers Ephedrine Inhalant No. 66 (ca. 1940)
Indications
Ephedrine was once widely used as a topical decongestant and as a bronchodilator in the treatment for asthma. It continues to be used for these indications, although its popularity is waning due to the availability of more effective agents for these indications which exhibit fewer adverse effects.[4] The role in nasal congestion has largely been replaced by more potent α-adrenergic receptor agonists (e.g. oxymetazoline). Similarly the role of ephedrine in asthma has been almost entirely replaced by β2-adrenergic receptor agonists (e.g. salbutamol). Ephedrine continues to be used intravenously in the reversal of hypotension from spinal/epidural anaesthesia.[4] It is also used in other hypotensive states, including overdose with ganglionic blocking agents, antiadrenergic agents, or other medications that lower blood pressure.[5] It can be used in narcolepsy and nocturnal enuresis.In traditional Chinese medicine, ephedrine has been used in the treatment of asthma and bronchitis for centuries.[6]
An ECA stack is a component found in thermogenic weight loss pills, composed of ephedrine, caffeine and aspirin (many supplement manufacturers include salicin instead of aspirin) working to speed up the metabolism and thus cause food energy to burn faster. The ECA stack is a popular supplement taken by body builders before workouts due to the increased amount of energy and alertness.
For many years, the US Coast Guard recommended ephedrine together with an equal 25 mg dose of promethazine to its sailors to combat seasickness. Promethazine manages nausea and ephedrine fights the ensuing drowsiness. Commonly referred to as the Coast Guard cocktail, ephedrine may still be available for prescription for this purpose.
Adverse effects
Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are more common with systemic administration (e.g. injection or oral administration) compared to topical administration (e.g. nasal instillations). ADRs associated with ephedrine therapy include:[4]- Cardiovascular: tachycardia, cardiac arrhythmias, Angina pectoris, vasoconstriction with hypertension
- Dermatological: flushing, sweating, acne vulgaris
- Gastrointestinal: nausea, appetite loss
- Genitourinary: increased urine output due to increased blood flow (difficulty urinating is not uncommon, as alpha-agonists such as ephedrine constrict the internal urethral sphincter, mimicking the effects of sympathetic nervous system stimulation)
- Nervous system:restlessness, confusion, insomnia, mild euphoria, mania/hallucinations (rare except in previously existing psychiatric conditions), delusions, formication (may be possible, but lacks documented evidence) paranoia, hostility, panic, agitation
- Respiratory: dyspnea, pulmonary edema
- Miscellaneous: dizziness, headache, tremor, hyperglycemic reactions
Overdose can lead to death, although the approved dose is not likely to cause severe reactions when used as directed.
Ephedrine can also lead to damage of the brain receptors over a period of high usage; this is because of its constant action on the neurochemicals. It also leads to high increase in blood pressure which over time can lead to damage in the blood vessels.
Contraindications
Ephedrine should not be used in conjunction with certain antidepressants, namely SNRIs (Selective norepinephrine re-uptake inhibitors), as this increases the risk of the above symptoms due to excessive serum levels of norepinephrine.Wellbutrin is an example of an antidepressant with an amphetamine-like structure similar to ephedrine. It has a similar action but also releases serotonin from presynaptic clefts. It should not be used with ephedrine as it may increase the likelihood of the above side effects.
Ephedrine should be used with caution in patients with inadequate fluid replacement, impaired adrenal function, hypoxia, hypercapnia, acidosis, hypertension, hyperthyroidism, prostatic hypertrophy, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, during delivery if maternal BP > 130/80 mmHg, and lactation.[7]
Contraindications for the use of ephedrine include: closed angle glaucoma, phaeochromocytoma, asymmetric septal hypertrophy (idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis), concomitant or recent (previous 14 days) monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) therapy, general anaesthesia with halogenated hydrocarbons (particularly cyclopropane or halothane), tachyarrhythmias or ventricular fibrillation, hypersensitivity to ephedrine or other stimulants. Ephedrine should NOT be used at any time during pregnancy unless specifically indicated by a qualified physician and ONLY when other options are unavailable.[7]
Recreational and illicit use
)
Ephedrine tablets
As a phenylethylamine, ephedrine has a similar chemical structure to amphetamines. Ephedrine can be used in the synthesis of methamphetamine by chemical reduction; this has made ephedrine a highly sought-after chemical precursor in the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine. The most popular method for reducing ephedrine to methamphetamine is similar to the Birch reduction, in that it uses anhydrous ammonia and lithium metal in the reaction. The second most popular method uses red phosphorus, iodine, and ephedrine in the reaction.
Through oxidation, ephedrine can be easily synthesized into methcathinone. Ephedrine is listed as a Table I precursor under the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.[8]
Ephedrine has been reported to cause both physical and psychological dependence after excessive long-term use. This is particularly true with oral forms of ephedrine, since parenteral administration is unlikely to occur over long periods.[7]
Neurotoxicity of Ephedrine
As a sympathomimetic agent similar in structure and activity to amphetamines, there has been a dispute over whether ephedrine produces any neurodegenerative effects. It has not been shown clinically that certain amphetamines (namely (d)-amphetamine and (d)-methamphetamine) can cause varying levels of long-term dopamine depletion in dopamine-rich brain and nervous centers such as the putamen and the basal ganglia.Several studies have recently compared the quantities of such neurotransmitters as serotonin, dopamine, glutamate, and epinephrine after concurrent administration of ephedrine and various amphetamine-like agents. The results showed that ephedrine has no neurotoxic effect nor has amphetamine counterparts.
Ephedrine increases serum dopamine levels minimally in comparison with an equivalent dose of dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine®). Dextromethamphetamine (Desoxyn®) raises dopamine levels dramatically (more than two times that of an equivalent dose of dextroamphetamine). This supports the general consensus that ephedrine has more of a peripheral action on the sympathetic nervous system, whereas amphetamines appear to cross the blood brain barrier more freely and tend to have a stronger central action. The fact that dopamine is believed to play a major role in the addiction response has been used in recent years as justification for controlling the distribution of dextroamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine, along with various other amphetamines.[10]
Legality in USA
Ephedrine itself has never been illegal in the United States. In 1997, the FDA proposed a regulation on ephedra (the herb from which ephedrine is obtained), which limited an ephedra dose to 8 mg (of active ephedrine) with no more than 24 mg per day.[1] This proposed rule was withdrawn in part in 2000 because of "concerns regarding the agency's basis for proposing a certain dietary ingredient level and a duration of use limit for these products."[2] In 2004, the FDA created a ban on ephedrine alkaloids that are marketed for reasons other than asthma, colds, allergies, other disease, or traditional Asian use.[3] On April 14, 2005, the U.S. District Court for the District of Utah ruled that the FDA did not have proper evidence that low dosages of ephedrine alkaloids are actually unsafe,[4] but on August 17, 2006, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit in Denver upheld the FDA's final rule declaring all dietary supplements containing ephedrine alkaloids adulterated, and therefore illegal for marketing in the United States.[5] Ephedrine is, however, still legal in many applications outside of dietary supplements. However, purchasing is currently limited and monitored, with specifics varying from state to state.The House passed the Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005 as an amendment to the renewal of the USA PATRIOT Act. Signed into law by president George W. Bush on March 6, 2006, the act amended the US Code (21 USC 830) concerning the sale of ephedrine-containing products. The federal statute included the following requirements for merchants who sell these products:
- A retrievable record of all purchases identifying the name and address of each party to be kept for two years.
- Required verification of proof of identity of all purchasers
- Required protection and disclosure methods in the collection of personal information
- Reports to the Attorney General of any suspicious payments or disappearances of the regulated products
- Non-liquid dose form of regulated product may only be sold in unit dose blister packs
- Regulated products are to be sold behind the counter or in a locked cabinet in such a way as to restrict access
- Daily sales of regulated products not to exceed 3.6 grams without regard to the number of transactions
- Monthly sales not to exceed 9 grams of pseudoephedrine base in regulated products
References
1. ^ Long, Professor. [6]
2. ^ (1989) in Edited by Reynolds JEF: , 29th edition, London: Pharmaceutical Press. ISBN 0-85369-210-6.
3. ^ Budavari S, editor. The Merck Index: An encyclopedia of chemicals, drugs, and biologicals, 12th edition. Whitehouse Station: Merck
4. ^ Joint Formulary Committee. British National Formulary, 47th edition. London: British Medical Association and Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain; 2004. ISBN 0853695873
5. ^ Bicopoulos D, editor. AusDI: Drug information for the healthcare professional, 2nd edition. Castle Hill: Pharmaceutical Care Information Services; 2002.
6. ^ Ford MD, Delaney KA, Ling LJ, Erickson T, editors. Clinical Toxicology. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2001. ISBN 0-7216-5485-1 Research Laboratories; 1996. ISBN 0-911910-12-3
7. ^ Mayne Pharma. Ephedrine sulfate injection DBL (Approved Product Information). Melbourne: Mayne Pharma; 2004
8. ^ [7]
9. ^ Mayne Pharma. Ephedrine sulfate injection DBL (Approved Product Information). Melbourne: Mayne Pharma; 2004.
10. ^ Txsci.oxfordjournals
2. ^ (1989) in Edited by Reynolds JEF: , 29th edition, London: Pharmaceutical Press. ISBN 0-85369-210-6.
3. ^ Budavari S, editor. The Merck Index: An encyclopedia of chemicals, drugs, and biologicals, 12th edition. Whitehouse Station: Merck
4. ^ Joint Formulary Committee. British National Formulary, 47th edition. London: British Medical Association and Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain; 2004. ISBN 0853695873
5. ^ Bicopoulos D, editor. AusDI: Drug information for the healthcare professional, 2nd edition. Castle Hill: Pharmaceutical Care Information Services; 2002.
6. ^ Ford MD, Delaney KA, Ling LJ, Erickson T, editors. Clinical Toxicology. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2001. ISBN 0-7216-5485-1 Research Laboratories; 1996. ISBN 0-911910-12-3
7. ^ Mayne Pharma. Ephedrine sulfate injection DBL (Approved Product Information). Melbourne: Mayne Pharma; 2004
8. ^ [7]
9. ^ Mayne Pharma. Ephedrine sulfate injection DBL (Approved Product Information). Melbourne: Mayne Pharma; 2004.
10. ^ Txsci.oxfordjournals
See also
External links
Phenethylamines |
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| 2C-B • 2C-C • 2C-D • 2C-E • 2C-I • 2C-N • 2C-T-2 • 2C-T-21 • 2C-T-4 • 2C-T-7 • 2C-T-8 • 3C-E • 4-FMP • Bupropion • Cathine • Cathinone • Clenbuterol • DESOXY • Dextroamphetamine • Methamphetamine • Diethylcathinone • Dimethylcathinone • DOC • DOB • DOI • DOM • bk-MBDB • Dopamine • Br-DFLY • Ephedrine • Epinephrine • Escaline • Fenfluramine • Levalbuterol • Levmetamfetamine • MBDB • MDA • MDMA • MDMC • MDEA • MDPV • Mescaline • Methcathinone • Methylphenidate • Norepinephrine • Phentermine • Salbutamol • Tyramine • Venlafaxine |
Decongestants and other nasal preparations (R01) | |
|---|---|
| Topical: sympathomimetics, plain | Cyclopentamine - Ephedrine - Phenylephrine - Oxymetazoline - Tetryzoline - Xylometazoline - Naphazoline - Tramazoline - Metizoline - Tuaminoheptane - Fenoxazoline - Tymazoline - Epinephrine |
| Topical: antiallergic agents, excluding corticosteroids | Cromoglicic acid - Levocabastine - Azelastine - Antazoline - Spaglumic acid - Thonzylamine - Nedocromil - Olopatadine |
| Topical: corticosteroids | Beclometasone - Prednisolone - Dexamethasone - Flunisolide - Budesonide - Betamethasone - Tixocortol - Fluticasone - Mometasone furoate - Triamcinolone |
| Topical: other nasal preparations | Calcium hexamine thiocyanate - Retinol - Ipratropium bromide - Ritiometan - Mupirocin - Hexamidine - Framycetin |
| Systemic use: Sympathomimetics | Phenylpropanolamine - Pseudoephedrine - Phenylephrine |
Ophthalmologicals: mydriatics and cycloplegics (S01F) | |
|---|---|
| Anticholinergics/antimuscarinics | Atropine - Scopolamine - Methylscopolamine - Cyclopentolate - Homatropine - Tropicamide |
| Sympathomimetics | Phenylephrine - Ephedrine - Ibopamine |
Sympathomimetic drugs are substances that mimic the effects of the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline) and the hormone/neurotransmitter norepinephrine (noradrenaline). They all raise blood pressure and are all weak bases.
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Amines are organic compounds and a type of functional group that contain nitrogen as the key atom. Structurally amines resemble ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic substituents such as alkyl and aryl groups.
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Amphetamine or Amfetamine(Alpha-Methyl-PHenEThylAMINE), also known as beta-phenyl-isopropylamine and benzedrine, is a prescription stimulant commonly used to treat Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults and children.
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Methamphetamine (methylamphetamine or desoxyephedrine), popularly shortened to meth and also nicknamed "ice", is a psychostimulant and sympathomimetic drug.
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Stimulants are drugs that temporarily increase alertness and awareness. They usually have increased side-effects with increased effectiveness, and the more powerful variants are therefore often prescription medicines or illegal drugs.
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A decongestant is a broad class of medications used to relieve nasal congestion. Generally, they work by reducing swelling of the mucous membranes in the nasal passages.
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Mechanism
Most decongestants cause response from adrenoreceptor a1..... Click the link for more information.
MeSH D007022
In physiology and medicine, hypotension refers to an abnormally low blood pressure. This is best understood as a physiologic state, rather than a disease. It is often associated with shock, though not necessarily indicative of it.
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In physiology and medicine, hypotension refers to an abnormally low blood pressure. This is best understood as a physiologic state, rather than a disease. It is often associated with shock, though not necessarily indicative of it.
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alkaloid is, strictly speaking, a naturally occurring amine produced by a plant, but amines produced by animals and fungi are also called alkaloids[1]. Many alkaloids have pharmacological effects on humans and other animals.
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Ephedrales
Family: Ephedraceae
Genus: Ephedra
L.
Species
See text.
This article is about the genus Ephedra.
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Family: Ephedraceae
Genus: Ephedra
L.
Species
See text.
This article is about the genus Ephedra.
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Ephedrales
Family: Ephedraceae
Genus: Ephedra
L.
Species
See text.
This article is about the genus Ephedra.
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Family: Ephedraceae
Genus: Ephedra
L.
Species
See text.
This article is about the genus Ephedra.
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E. sinica
Binomial name
Ephedra sinica
Ephedra sinica is a member of the ephedraceae family, native to China.
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Binomial name
Ephedra sinica
Ephedra sinica is a member of the ephedraceae family, native to China.
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Pseudoephedrine (commonly abbreviated as PSE) is a sympathomimetic amine commonly used as a decongestant. The salts pseudoephedrine hydrochloride and pseudoephedrine sulfate
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E. distachya
Binomial name
Ephedra distachya
L.
Ephedra distachya (syn. E.
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Binomial name
Ephedra distachya
L.
Ephedra distachya (syn. E.
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18th century - 19th century - 20th century
1850s 1860s 1870s - 1880s - 1890s 1900s 1910s
1882 1883 1884 - 1885 - 1886 1887 1888
:
Subjects: Archaeology - Architecture -
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1850s 1860s 1870s - 1880s - 1890s 1900s 1910s
1882 1883 1884 - 1885 - 1886 1887 1888
:
Subjects: Archaeology - Architecture -
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Soma (Sanskrit: सोमः), or Haoma (Avestan), from Proto-Indo-Iranian *sauma-, was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the later Vedic and greater Persian cultures.
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Hindu ( pronunciation , Devanagari: हिन्दु), as per modern definition, is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, and the
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The Rigveda (Sanskrit ऋग्वेद
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worldwide view of the subject.
Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page.
Ephedra is an alkaloid chemical compound traditionally obtained from the plant Ephedra sinica.[1] E.Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page.
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The term chiral (pronounced /ˈkaɪɹ(ə)l̩/) is used to describe an object that is non-superimposable on its mirror image. In terms of chemistry, such objects are usually molecules.
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In chemistry, enantiomers (from the Greek ἐνάντιος, opposite, and μέρος, part or portion) are stereoisomers that are nonsuperimposable complete mirror images of each other, much as one's left and right hands
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Pseudoephedrine (commonly abbreviated as PSE) is a sympathomimetic amine commonly used as a decongestant. The salts pseudoephedrine hydrochloride and pseudoephedrine sulfate
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Methamphetamine (methylamphetamine or desoxyephedrine), popularly shortened to meth and also nicknamed "ice", is a psychostimulant and sympathomimetic drug.
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adrenergic receptors (or adrenoceptors) are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are targets of the catecholamines. Adrenergic receptors specifically bind their endogenous ligands, the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline (called epinephrine and norepinephrine
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The Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) is a branch of the autonomic nervous system. It is always active at a basal level (called sympathetic tone) and becomes more active during times of stress.
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Dopamine is a hormone and neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In chemical structure, it is a phenethylamine.
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Serotonin (pronounced IPA: /ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən/) (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) and
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Dopamine is a hormone and neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals, including both vertebrates and invertebrates. In chemical structure, it is a phenethylamine.
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The nucleus accumbens (NAcc), also known as the accumbens nucleus or as the nucleus accumbens septi (Latin for nucleus leaning against the septum), is a collection of neurons within the forebrain, located where the head of the caudate and the anterior
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Topical decongestants are decongestants applied directly to the nasal cavity. By applying them directly to the site of action, topical decongestants relieve nasal congestion while reducing the side effects associated with systemically-acting decongestants, such as high blood
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Herod_Archelaus
