Information about Apologist
Apologists are authors, writers, editors of scientific logs or academic journals, and leaders known for taking on the points in arguments, conflicts or positions that are either placed under popular scrutinies or viewed under persecutory examinations. The term comes from the Greek word apologia (απολογία), meaning defense of a position against an attack.
Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, (ca.155–230) was a church leader and was a notable early Christian apologist. He was born, lived and died in Carthage. He was the first great writer of Latin Christianity, thus sometimes known as the "Father of the Latin Church". He introduced the term Trinity (Theophilius to Autolycus - 115-181 - introduced the word Trinity in his Book 2, chapter 15 on the creation of the 4th day) as the Latin trinitas, to the Christian vocabulary[1] and also probably the formula "three Persons, one Substance" as the Latin "tres Personae, una Substantia" (itself from the Koine Greek "treis Hypostases, Homoousios"), and also the terms vetus testamentum ("old testament") and novum testamentum ("new testament").
In his Apologeticus, he was the first Latin author who qualified Christianity as the 'vera religio', and symmetrically relegated the classical Empire religion and other accepted cults to the position of mere 'superstitions'. Tertullian left the Church of Rome late in his life and joined the heretical Montanists, thus explaining his failure to attain sainthood.
Early uses of the term (in the first sense) include Plato's Apology (the defense speech of Socrates from his trial) and some works of early Christian apologists, such as St. Justin Martyr's two Apologies addressed to the emperor Marcus Aurelius.
John Henry Cardinal Newman, JHCN. (February 21 1801 – August 11 1890) was an English convert to Roman Catholicism, later made a cardinal, and in 1991 proclaimed 'Venerable'. In early life he was a major figure in the Oxford Movement to bring the Church of England back to its Catholic roots. Eventually his studies in history persuaded him to become a Roman Catholic. When John Henry Newman entitled his spiritual autobiography Apologia Pro Vita Sua in 1864 , he was playing upon both this connotation, and the more commonly understood meaning of an expression of contrition or regret.
This Classical Greek term appears in the Koine (i.e. common) Greek of the New Testament. The Apostle Paul employs the term apologia in his trial speech to Festus and Agrippa when he says "I make my defense" (). A cognate term appears in Paul's Letter to the Philippians as he is "defending the gospel" (), and in believers must be ready to give an "answer" for their faith. The word also appears in the negative in : unbelievers are αναπολόγητοι (anapologētoi) (without excuse, defense, or apology) for rejecting the revelation of God in creation.
The legal nuance of apologetics was reframed in a more specific sense to refer to the study of the defense of a doctrine or belief. In this context it most commonly refers to philosophical reconciliation. Religious apologetics is the effort to show that the preferred faith is not irrational, that believing in it is not against human reason, and that in fact the religion contains values and promotes ways of life more in accord with human nature than other faiths or beliefs.
In the English language, the word apology is derived from the Greek word apologia, but its use has changed; its primary sense now refers to a defensive plea for forgiveness for an action that is open to blame. It is occasionally used to refer to a speech or writing that defends the author's position.
About a century after Emperor Constantine I's conversion to Christianity, the Roman Empire began falling to invaders from northern Europe. Some Christian writers sought to explain the decline of Roman culture and power by systematically downplaying the achievements of classical antiquity while emphasizing the persecution of Christians and the positive role of Christianity in society. Paulus Orosius wrote the first book advancing this perspective (History Against the Pagans), though the far more learned and influential work of this type was The City of God by Augustine of Hippo (426).
Several of the early Christian apologists developed arguments from fulfilled prophecy and gospel miracles as proofs of Christ's divinity. Eusebius of Caesarea in his Demonstration of the Gospel attempted to prove the truth of Christianity by fulfilled prophecies from the Old Testament, and by rebutting arguments that the apostles had made up the story of Christ's resurrection.
Theodore Abu Qurra, the ninth century bishop of Harran, composed On God and The True Religion. Abu Qurra represents a group of Christian Arabic apologists who argued their case under early Islamic rule.
A highly influential Catholic apologist was Thomas Aquinas who presented five arguments for God's existence in the Summa Theologiae. His approach, which adapted Aristotelian thought, is known as Thomism, and has dominated both Roman Catholic and Protestant approaches.
The Roman Catholic G. K. Chesterton, the Anglican C. S. Lewis (who popularized the Christian trilemma), the Lutheran John Warwick Montgomery, and the Presbyterian Francis Schaeffer were among the most prolific Christian apologists in the 20th century. Among the most widely read Christian apologists writing in English have been Josh McDowell and Lee Strobel. Another modern apologist is Ravi Zacharias, author of The Lotus and the Cross: Jesus Talks with Buddha which argues for Christianity over other religions and movements deemed heretical. Although not primarily an apologist, Douglas John Hall authored Why Christian?: For Those on the Edge of Faith which is written as a series of dialogues with a young doubting inquirer.
Although members of churches within the Latter Day Saint Movement self-identify as Christians, their most vocal critics are frequently other Christians. Organizations such as Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, a group of scholars at Brigham Young University, and Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research, an independent, not-for-profit group, have formed to defend the doctrines and history of the Latter Day Saint movement in general and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in particular.
Apologists for Islam have defended the Koran using rationalist and empiricist arguments, and using cosmological arguments to prove God's existence. Muslims have actually developed their own form of creationism, Islamic creationism. Islamic apologists have also challenged both Jewish and Christian beliefs. The late South African Islamic scholar, Ahmed Deedat, was a prolific popular writer who debated Christian evangelists by arguing over discrepancies in the Bible, and claiming the Gospel of Barnabas is the only authentic record of Jesus' life.
One of the earliest Buddhist apologetic texts is The Questions of King Milinda, which deals with ethical and intellectual problems. In the British colonial era, Buddhists in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) wrote tracts that challenged and rejected Christianity. In the mid-nineteenth century, encounters between Buddhists and Christians in Japan prompted the formation of a Buddhist Propagation Society. In recent times A. L. De Silva, an Australian convert to Buddhism, has written a text designed to refute the arguments of Christian evangelists. At a sophisticated academic level, Gunapala Dharmasiri has challenged the Christian concept of God from a Theravadan Buddhist perspective.
Hindu apologetics designed to counter Christian missions developed in the British colonial era. Richard Fox Young has collated examples of these early apologetic tracts. Hindus have also developed their creationism, Hindu creationism, and even their own form of cosmology, Hindu cosmology.
In a famous speech called Red Jacket on Religion for the White Man and the Red in 1805, Seneca chief Red Jacket was an apologist for American Indian religion, as opposed to Christianity. American Indians have also developed their own form of creationism, North American Indian creationism.
Some pantheists have formed organizations such as the World Pantheist Movement and Universal Pantheist Society to promote and logically defend belief in pantheism.
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Notable apologists
Plato (Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn, "wide, broad-shouldered") (428/427 BC[a] – 348/347 BC), whose original name was Aristocles, was an ancient Greek philosopher, the second of the great trio of ancient Greeks –succeeding Socrates and preceding Aristotle– who between them laid the philosophical foundations of Western cultureQuintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, (ca.155–230) was a church leader and was a notable early Christian apologist. He was born, lived and died in Carthage. He was the first great writer of Latin Christianity, thus sometimes known as the "Father of the Latin Church". He introduced the term Trinity (Theophilius to Autolycus - 115-181 - introduced the word Trinity in his Book 2, chapter 15 on the creation of the 4th day) as the Latin trinitas, to the Christian vocabulary[1] and also probably the formula "three Persons, one Substance" as the Latin "tres Personae, una Substantia" (itself from the Koine Greek "treis Hypostases, Homoousios"), and also the terms vetus testamentum ("old testament") and novum testamentum ("new testament").
In his Apologeticus, he was the first Latin author who qualified Christianity as the 'vera religio', and symmetrically relegated the classical Empire religion and other accepted cults to the position of mere 'superstitions'. Tertullian left the Church of Rome late in his life and joined the heretical Montanists, thus explaining his failure to attain sainthood.
Early uses of the term (in the first sense) include Plato's Apology (the defense speech of Socrates from his trial) and some works of early Christian apologists, such as St. Justin Martyr's two Apologies addressed to the emperor Marcus Aurelius.
John Henry Cardinal Newman, JHCN. (February 21 1801 – August 11 1890) was an English convert to Roman Catholicism, later made a cardinal, and in 1991 proclaimed 'Venerable'. In early life he was a major figure in the Oxford Movement to bring the Church of England back to its Catholic roots. Eventually his studies in history persuaded him to become a Roman Catholic. When John Henry Newman entitled his spiritual autobiography Apologia Pro Vita Sua in 1864 , he was playing upon both this connotation, and the more commonly understood meaning of an expression of contrition or regret.
Colloquial usage
Today the term "apologist" is colloquially applied in a general manner to include groups and individuals systematically promoting causes, justifying orthodoxies, or denying certain events, even of crimes. Apologists have been characterized as being deceptive, or "whitewashing" their cause, primarily through omission of negative facts (selective perception) and exaggeration of positive ones, techniques of classical rhetoric. When used in this context, the term often has a pejorative meaning. The neutralized substitution of "spokesperson" for "apologist" in conversation conveys much the same sense of "partisan presenter with a weighted agenda," with less rhetorical freight.Technical usages
The term apologetics etymologically derives from the Classical Greek word apologia. In the Classical Greek legal system two key technical terms were employed: the prosecution delivered the kategoria (κατηγορία), and the defendant replied with an apologia. To deliver an apologia then meant making a formal speech to reply and rebut the charges, as in the case of Socrates' defense.This Classical Greek term appears in the Koine (i.e. common) Greek of the New Testament. The Apostle Paul employs the term apologia in his trial speech to Festus and Agrippa when he says "I make my defense" (). A cognate term appears in Paul's Letter to the Philippians as he is "defending the gospel" (), and in believers must be ready to give an "answer" for their faith. The word also appears in the negative in : unbelievers are αναπολόγητοι (anapologētoi) (without excuse, defense, or apology) for rejecting the revelation of God in creation.
The legal nuance of apologetics was reframed in a more specific sense to refer to the study of the defense of a doctrine or belief. In this context it most commonly refers to philosophical reconciliation. Religious apologetics is the effort to show that the preferred faith is not irrational, that believing in it is not against human reason, and that in fact the religion contains values and promotes ways of life more in accord with human nature than other faiths or beliefs.
In the English language, the word apology is derived from the Greek word apologia, but its use has changed; its primary sense now refers to a defensive plea for forgiveness for an action that is open to blame. It is occasionally used to refer to a speech or writing that defends the author's position.
Christian apologetics
- Main article: Christian apologetics
Early Christian era
In the first centuries AD a number of Christian writers undertook the task of proving that Christianity was beneficial for the Roman Empire and for humanity as a whole. Also they wrote to defend their faith against attacks made by other people or to properly explain their faith. Aristides and Quadratus of Athens, writing in the early second century, were two of the first Christians to write apologetics treatises. Other second-century apologetics writings of note included the First Apology and Second Apology of Justin Martyr and the Epistle to Diognetus , a response to the accusation that Christians were a danger to Rome, further more: Athenagoras, Tatian, Theophilos of Antioch, Tertullian and Minucius Felix.About a century after Emperor Constantine I's conversion to Christianity, the Roman Empire began falling to invaders from northern Europe. Some Christian writers sought to explain the decline of Roman culture and power by systematically downplaying the achievements of classical antiquity while emphasizing the persecution of Christians and the positive role of Christianity in society. Paulus Orosius wrote the first book advancing this perspective (History Against the Pagans), though the far more learned and influential work of this type was The City of God by Augustine of Hippo (426).
Several of the early Christian apologists developed arguments from fulfilled prophecy and gospel miracles as proofs of Christ's divinity. Eusebius of Caesarea in his Demonstration of the Gospel attempted to prove the truth of Christianity by fulfilled prophecies from the Old Testament, and by rebutting arguments that the apostles had made up the story of Christ's resurrection.
Medieval era
In Medieval Europe Anselm of Canterbury composed the Monologion and Proslogion in which he developed the ontological argument for God's existence. He believed that faith was necessary as a precursor to philosophical argument and expressed his position as "I do not seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand: for this I also believe, that unless I believe I will not understand."Theodore Abu Qurra, the ninth century bishop of Harran, composed On God and The True Religion. Abu Qurra represents a group of Christian Arabic apologists who argued their case under early Islamic rule.
A highly influential Catholic apologist was Thomas Aquinas who presented five arguments for God's existence in the Summa Theologiae. His approach, which adapted Aristotelian thought, is known as Thomism, and has dominated both Roman Catholic and Protestant approaches.
Post-Reformation era
The first Protestant textbook of apologetics was written by the Dutch legal scholar Hugo Grotius, On The Truth of the Christian Religion. This work, which was released in 1632 and translated into many languages, remained in print in English until the late nineteenth century, defended the historicity of the gospels, and also addressed arguments to Jews and Muslims.Modern era
Since the seventeenth century the controversies over Deism, Atheism, the Enlightenment, Humanism, and theories of Feuerbach, Marx, Freud and Darwin, have each in turn spurred both Catholic and Protestant apologists to reply. Changing modes in apologetics, whether or not they are currently fashionable, are important markers in the history of ideas. Among the notable apologists of the early modern era are Blaise Pascal, Joseph Butler, William Paley, Søren Kierkegaard, and John Henry Newman.The Roman Catholic G. K. Chesterton, the Anglican C. S. Lewis (who popularized the Christian trilemma), the Lutheran John Warwick Montgomery, and the Presbyterian Francis Schaeffer were among the most prolific Christian apologists in the 20th century. Among the most widely read Christian apologists writing in English have been Josh McDowell and Lee Strobel. Another modern apologist is Ravi Zacharias, author of The Lotus and the Cross: Jesus Talks with Buddha which argues for Christianity over other religions and movements deemed heretical. Although not primarily an apologist, Douglas John Hall authored Why Christian?: For Those on the Edge of Faith which is written as a series of dialogues with a young doubting inquirer.
Christian apologists
Some prominent Christian apologists include:
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Apologetics in other religions
As the world's religions have encountered one another, apologetics and apologists from within their respective faiths have emerged. Some of these apologetics are to do with responding to and fighting back against the arguments of both Christianity and secularism, some are not.Apologists for Islam have defended the Koran using rationalist and empiricist arguments, and using cosmological arguments to prove God's existence. Muslims have actually developed their own form of creationism, Islamic creationism. Islamic apologists have also challenged both Jewish and Christian beliefs. The late South African Islamic scholar, Ahmed Deedat, was a prolific popular writer who debated Christian evangelists by arguing over discrepancies in the Bible, and claiming the Gospel of Barnabas is the only authentic record of Jesus' life.
One of the earliest Buddhist apologetic texts is The Questions of King Milinda, which deals with ethical and intellectual problems. In the British colonial era, Buddhists in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) wrote tracts that challenged and rejected Christianity. In the mid-nineteenth century, encounters between Buddhists and Christians in Japan prompted the formation of a Buddhist Propagation Society. In recent times A. L. De Silva, an Australian convert to Buddhism, has written a text designed to refute the arguments of Christian evangelists. At a sophisticated academic level, Gunapala Dharmasiri has challenged the Christian concept of God from a Theravadan Buddhist perspective.
Hindu apologetics designed to counter Christian missions developed in the British colonial era. Richard Fox Young has collated examples of these early apologetic tracts. Hindus have also developed their creationism, Hindu creationism, and even their own form of cosmology, Hindu cosmology.
In a famous speech called Red Jacket on Religion for the White Man and the Red in 1805, Seneca chief Red Jacket was an apologist for American Indian religion, as opposed to Christianity. American Indians have also developed their own form of creationism, North American Indian creationism.
Some pantheists have formed organizations such as the World Pantheist Movement and Universal Pantheist Society to promote and logically defend belief in pantheism.
Apologetics in Parapsychology
Some parapsychologists and believers in paranormal phenomena have formed organizations such as the Society for Psychical Research to defend belief in paranormal phenomena. In fact, even Arthur Balfour, a prime minister of the United Kingdom, was an important member and even once a president of the Society for Psychical Research.See also
- Cherry picking
- Christian apologetics
- Christian countercult movement
- Counterapologetics
- Existence of God
- Fideism
- List of apologetic works
- A Mathematician's Apology by G. H. Hardy
- Mormon apologetics
- Polemic
- Presuppositional apologetics
- Problem of evil
- Spin (public relations)
- Theodicy
External links
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Pros
- catholicdefendyourfaith.comCatholic Apologetics
- St Andrew Holborn Friday Lunchtime Apologetics Lecture Series Jonathan Aitken, Simon Conway Morris and others explore the debate
- SoundWitness.org A Christian apologetics & counter-cult ministry critiquing truth claims in a postmodern world
- Multimedia Apologeticsapologetics and evolution multimedia resources
- A.C.T.S.Catholic Apologetics
- Apologetics Wiki The User-edited Christian Apologetics Site
- Apologetics Search Engine Powered by human editors and Google search
- AllAboutGOD.com Over 1,750 conscise, one-page arguments for the purposes of evangelism.
- Apologetics.com An apologetics site dedicated to the defense of the Christian worldview
- Apologia.com Apologia Science Ministries founded by Dr. Jay L. Wile, who writes science curriculum for high school and middle school students
- Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry Full-featured apologetics for the Seeker and the experienced Evangelical Theologian
- CreationOnTheWeb An apologetics ministry providing speakers, articles, books and DVDs that equip Christians to defend the Bible from the very first verse
- Reclaiming the Mind Ministries Apologetic and Theological Resources and Fourms with scholars such as Dan Wallace and Jim Sawyer answering tough questions Christians have to address
- Skeptical Christian Christian Apologetics Articles
- Apollos.ws The largest compilation of apologetics audio/video files.
- Lumen Gentleman Apologetics
- Catholic Answers The largest Catholic Apologetics organization in North America.
- Catholic Apologetics Resource A brand new Catholic Apologetics Wiki
- Christian Apologetics Questions and Answers - Answers in Genesis An apologetics organization defending a young-earth form of creationism.
- Christian Classics Ethereal Library A huge amount of public domain Christian works.
- Christian Truth and its Defense Gives the Gospel of Christianity and answers questions about God, truth, reason, and faith.
- Apologetics Index A huge database of apologetics and countercult research resources.
- Apologetics Courses A large number of downloadable apologetics courses.
- Reformation Ministries International The writings of theologian Vincent Cheung.
- bethinking.org A colourful site with a large amount of audio and text from many different Christian apologists available for free download. Material is sorted into Introductory, Intermediate and Advanced for ease of use.
- Biblical Archeology An encyclopedic site on Archeology for apologetics.
- Catholic Apologetics of America A large Catholic blog with several articles and links to help defend and explain the Catholic faith.
- A Buddhist Critique of Christianity by A. L. de Silva.
- epologetics
- Eternal Ministries, a Christian apologetics and theology ministry
- Tekton Apologetics Ministries, a Christian website collecting arguments primarily about biblical apologetics.
- A different view of the purpose of Christian apologetics
- Catholic Encyclopedia: Apologetics.
- An apologetics organization defending the biblical form of creationism (Answers in Genesis).
- Reasons to Believe An apologetics organization defending an old-earth form of creationism.
- Basic Apologetics Curriculum
- Apologetic Ebooks Several illustrated ebooks on Christian Apologetics.
- Ravi Zacharias, modern apologist
- Ourcross.org for proof of God, Comparative religion
- Apologetics Press Vast amount of apologetics resources.
- Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry
- Islamic Apologetics site
- Academy for Christian Thought A research & educational ministry for effective apologetic witness in the marketplace of ideas.
- Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics
- VanTil.info aims to be a comprehensive catalogue of online resources explicitly related to the theology, philosophy, and apologetics of Cornelius Van Til.
- Minnesota Apologetics Project Mainly the work of apologist, Gannon Murphy, Ph.D., in the classical vein.
- Josiah Concept Ministries Dedicated to using a common sense approach to Christian Apologetics. Named for King Josiah, who went "back to the basics" of Mosaic Law by cleaning out of the idols and foreign temples.
- Wellington Christian Apologetics Society, Wellington, New Zealand
- Manawatu Christian Apologetics Society, Palmerston North, New Zealand
- LifeWay Apologetics An article repository on Christian apologetics in the areas of Science, Philosophy, Bible, Cults and World Religions, Social Issues, and Tactics.
- Stand to Reason Stand to Reason trains Christians to think more clearly about their faith and to make an even-handed, incisive, yet gracious defense for classical Christianity and classical Christian values in the public square.
- Leadership University Vast amounts of apologetic material.
- The C. S. Lewis Society
- The Atlanta Apologist Promoting an Intelligent Christian Worldview by Integrating Science and Scriptures. This is the Atlanta chapter of Reasons to Believe.
- Dr. Gary R. Habermas History, philosophy and Christian apologetics, specializing in 'Resurrection-of-Jesus' Research.
- The Apologia Project Huge quantity of online videos on intelligent design, science and more.
- Alpha and Omega Ministries Ministry of Dr. James White. Lots of materials from a Reformed Baptist perspective including: a weekly radio program, a blog and a huge collection of debates White has participated in.
- Oxford Centre for Christian Apologetics
- ImpactApologetics.com
- Defend the Faith
- Christian Logic
- The Centre for Christian Apologetics
- Evidence and Answers
- Integrated Apologetics
- Article on Apologetics in the Christian Cyclopedia
Cons
- Official Website (Members of the Church of God International)
- Ask the Truthcaster through Live Video
- The Old Path Good News Online TV
References
1. ^ A History of Christian Thought, Paul Tillich, Touchstone Books, 1972. ISBN 0-671-21426-8 (p. 43)
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Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, (ca. 155–230) was a church leader and prolific author of Early Christianity. He also was a notable early Christian apologist.
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Church Theology
New Covenant Supersessionism
Dispensationalism
Apostles Kingdom Gospel
History of Christianity Timeline
Bible
Old Testament New Testament
Books Canon Apocrypha
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Foundations
Jesus Christ
Church Theology
New Covenant Supersessionism
Dispensationalism
Apostles Kingdom Gospel
History of Christianity Timeline
Bible
Old Testament New Testament
Books Canon Apocrypha
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Apologists are authors, writers, editors of scientific logs or academic journals, and leaders known for taking on the points in arguments, conflicts or positions that are either placed under popular scrutinies or viewed under persecutory examinations.
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State Party Tunisia
Type Cultural
Criteria ii, iii, vi
Reference 37
Region Arab States
Inscription History
Inscription 1979 (3rd Session)
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Type Cultural
Criteria ii, iii, vi
Reference 37
Region Arab States
Inscription History
Inscription 1979 (3rd Session)
..... Click the link for more information.
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Herod_Archelaus
