Information about Spectral Efficiency
Spectral efficiency or spectrum efficiency refers to the amount of information that can be transmitted over a given bandwidth in a specific digital communication system. It is a measure of how efficiently a limited frequency spectrum is utilized by the physical layer protocol, and sometimes by the media access control (the channel access protocol).
A transmission technique using one kilohertz of bandwidth to transmit 1000 bits per second has a spectral efficiency of 1 bit/s/Hz.
The maximum possible spectral efficiency of any modulation scheme without FEC is given by the Nyquist sampling theorem as follows. For a signaling alphabet with M symbols, each symbol represents N = log2 M bits and the spectral efficiency cannot exceed 2N bit/s/Hz without intersymbol interference. For example, if the alphabet size is M=8 symbols, with N=3 bits/symbol, the spectral efficiency cannot exceed 2N = 6 bit/s/Hz.
If a forward error correction code is used, the spectral efficiency is reduced by the FEC code rate from the uncoded figure. For example, if FEC with code rate 1/2 is added, meaning that the encoder input rate is one half the encoder output rate, the spectral efficiency is 50% of the uncoded value. In exchange for this reduction in spectral efficiency, FEC usually (but not always) enables operation at a lower signal to noise ratio (SNR).
An upper bound for the spectral efficiency possible without bit errors in a channel with a certain SNR, if ideal error coding and modulation is used, is given by the Shannon-Hartley theorem. For example, if the SNR is 1, expressed as a ratio and corresponding to 0 decibel, the link spectral efficiency can not exceed 1 bit/s/Hz regardless of the modulation and coding.
Note that the goodput (the amount of application layer useful information) is normally lower than the maximum throughput used in the above calculations, because of packet retransmissions, higher protocol layer overhead, flow control, congestion avoidance, etc.
The term "spectral efficiency" can be somewhat misleading, as larger values are not necessarily more efficient in their overall use of radio spectrum. For example, in a cellular telephone network with frequency reuse, spectrum spreading and FEC reduce the spectral efficiency (in bit/s/Hz) but substantially lower the required signal-to-noise ratio. This can allow for much denser geographical frequency reuse that more than compensates for the lower link spectral efficiency. As discussed below, a more relevant measure would be bit/s/Hz per unit area, and this is the principle behind CDMA digital cellular. However, in closed communication links such as telephone lines and cable TV networks where co-channel interference is not a factor, the largest spectral efficiency that can be supported by the available SNR is generally used.
The capacity of a cellular network may also be measured as the maximum number of simultaneous phone calls over 1 MHz frequency spectrum in Erlangs//MHz/cell, Erlangs/MHz/sector, Erlangs/MHz/site, or Erlangs/MHz/km². This measure is also affected by the source coding (data compression) scheme, and may be used in analog cellular networks as well.
Low link spectral efficiency in bit/s/Hz does not necessarily mean that an encoding scheme is inefficient from a system spectral efficiency point of view. As an example, consider Code Division Multiplexed Access (CDMA) spread spectrum, which is not a particularly spectrally efficient encoding scheme when considering a single channel or single user. However, the fact that one can "layer" multiple channels on the same frequency band means that the system spectrum utilization for a multi-channel CDMA system can be very good.
The spectral efficiency can be improved by radio resource management techniques such as efficient fixed or dynamic channel allocation, power control and link adaptation.
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Link spectral efficiency
The link spectral efficiency is measured in bit/s/Hz, and is the channel capacity or maximum throughput of a logical point-to-point link with a given modulation method. If a forward error correction (FEC) code is combined with the modulation, a "bit" refers to a user data bit; FEC overhead is always excluded.A transmission technique using one kilohertz of bandwidth to transmit 1000 bits per second has a spectral efficiency of 1 bit/s/Hz.
Telephone modem example: A V.92 modem for the telephone network can transfer 56,000 bit/s downstream and 48,000 bit/s upstream over an analog telephone network. Due to filtering in the telephone exchange, the frequency range is limited to between 300 hertz and 3,400 hertz, corresponding to a bandwidth of 3400 − 300 = 3100 hertz. The spectral efficiency is 56,000/3,100 = 18.1 bit/s/Hz downstream, and 48,000/3,100 = 15.5 bit/s/Hz upstream.
The maximum possible spectral efficiency of any modulation scheme without FEC is given by the Nyquist sampling theorem as follows. For a signaling alphabet with M symbols, each symbol represents N = log2 M bits and the spectral efficiency cannot exceed 2N bit/s/Hz without intersymbol interference. For example, if the alphabet size is M=8 symbols, with N=3 bits/symbol, the spectral efficiency cannot exceed 2N = 6 bit/s/Hz.
If a forward error correction code is used, the spectral efficiency is reduced by the FEC code rate from the uncoded figure. For example, if FEC with code rate 1/2 is added, meaning that the encoder input rate is one half the encoder output rate, the spectral efficiency is 50% of the uncoded value. In exchange for this reduction in spectral efficiency, FEC usually (but not always) enables operation at a lower signal to noise ratio (SNR).
An upper bound for the spectral efficiency possible without bit errors in a channel with a certain SNR, if ideal error coding and modulation is used, is given by the Shannon-Hartley theorem. For example, if the SNR is 1, expressed as a ratio and corresponding to 0 decibel, the link spectral efficiency can not exceed 1 bit/s/Hz regardless of the modulation and coding.
Note that the goodput (the amount of application layer useful information) is normally lower than the maximum throughput used in the above calculations, because of packet retransmissions, higher protocol layer overhead, flow control, congestion avoidance, etc.
The term "spectral efficiency" can be somewhat misleading, as larger values are not necessarily more efficient in their overall use of radio spectrum. For example, in a cellular telephone network with frequency reuse, spectrum spreading and FEC reduce the spectral efficiency (in bit/s/Hz) but substantially lower the required signal-to-noise ratio. This can allow for much denser geographical frequency reuse that more than compensates for the lower link spectral efficiency. As discussed below, a more relevant measure would be bit/s/Hz per unit area, and this is the principle behind CDMA digital cellular. However, in closed communication links such as telephone lines and cable TV networks where co-channel interference is not a factor, the largest spectral efficiency that can be supported by the available SNR is generally used.
System spectral efficiency
In wireless networks, the system spectral efficiency in bit/s/Hz/area unit, bit/s/Hz/cell or bit/s/Hz/site is a measure of the quantity of users or services that can be simultaneously supported by a limited radio frequency bandwidth in a defined geographic area. It may for example be defined as the maximum throughput or goodput, summed over all users in the system, divided by the channel bandwidth in hertz. This measure is affected not only by the single user transmission technique, but also by multiple access schemes and radio resource management techniques utilized. It can be substantially improved by dynamic radio resource management. If it is defined as a measure of the maximum goodput, retransmissions due to co-channel interference and collisions are excluded. Higher-layer protocol overhead (above the media access control sublayer) is normally neglected.The capacity of a cellular network may also be measured as the maximum number of simultaneous phone calls over 1 MHz frequency spectrum in Erlangs//MHz/cell, Erlangs/MHz/sector, Erlangs/MHz/site, or Erlangs/MHz/km². This measure is also affected by the source coding (data compression) scheme, and may be used in analog cellular networks as well.
Example: In a cellular system based on frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) with a fixed channel allocation (FCA) cellplan using a frequency reuse factor of 4, each base station has access to 1/4 of the total available frequency spectrum. Thus, the maximum possible system spectral efficiency in bit/s/Hz/site is 1/4 of the link spectral efficiency. Each base station may be divided into 3 cells by means of 3 sector antennas, also known as a 4/12 reuse pattern. Then each cell has access to 1/12 of the available spectrum, and the system spectral efficiency in bit/s/Hz/cell or bit/s/Hz/sectoris 1/12 of the link spectral efficiency.
Low link spectral efficiency in bit/s/Hz does not necessarily mean that an encoding scheme is inefficient from a system spectral efficiency point of view. As an example, consider Code Division Multiplexed Access (CDMA) spread spectrum, which is not a particularly spectrally efficient encoding scheme when considering a single channel or single user. However, the fact that one can "layer" multiple channels on the same frequency band means that the system spectrum utilization for a multi-channel CDMA system can be very good.
Example: In the W-CDMA 3G cellular system, every phone call is compressed to a maximum of 8,500 bit/s (the useful bitrate), and spread out over a 5 MHz wide frequency channel. This corresponds to a link throughput of only 8,500/5,000,000 = 0.0017 bit/s/Hz. Let us assume that 100 simultaneous (non-silent) simultaneous calls are possible in the same cell. Spread spectrum makes it possible to have as low a frequency reuse factor as 1, if each base station is divided into 3 cells by means of 3 directional sector antennas. This corresponds to a system spectrum efficiency of over 1 · 100 · 0.0017 = 0.17 bit/s/Hz/site, or 0.17/3 = 0.06 bit/s/Hz/cell (or bit/s/Hz/sector).
The spectral efficiency can be improved by radio resource management techniques such as efficient fixed or dynamic channel allocation, power control and link adaptation.
Comparison table
Examples of numerical spectral efficiency values of some common communication systems can be found in the table below.| Service | Standard | Net bitrate R per frequency channel (Mbit/s) | Bandwidth B per frequency channel (MHz) | Link spectral efficiency R/B (bit/s/Hz) | Typical frequency reuse factor 1/K | System spectral efficiency Approximately R/B/K (bit/s/Hz/site) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2G cellular | GSM 1993 | 0.013•8 timeslots = 0.104 | 0.2 | 0.52 | 1/7 | 0.17 [1] |
| 2.75G cellular | GSM + EDGE | Max 0.384 Typ 0.20 | 0.2 | Max 1.92 Typ 1.00 | 1/7 | 0.33 [1] |
| 2.75G cellular | IS-136HS + EDGE | Max 0.384 Typ 0.27 | 0.2 | Max 1.92 Typ 1.35 | 1/7 | 0.45 [1] |
| 3G cellular | WCDMA FDD 1997 | Max 0.384 per mobile | 5 | Max 0.077 per mobile | 1/7 | 0.51 |
| 3.5G cellular | HSDPA 2007 | Max 14.4 per mobile | 5 | Max 2.88 per mobile | 1/7 | 0.71 |
| 3.5G cellular | HSOPA OFDMA | Max 100 per mobile | 10 | Max 5 per mobile | 1/7 | 0.71 |
| 3G cellular | CDMA2000 1x | Max 0.144 per mobile | 1.25 | Max 0.115 per mobile | 1/7 | 0.51 |
| Wi-Fi | IEEE 802.11a/g 2003 | Max 54 | 20 | Max 2.7 | 1/3 | 0.9 |
| Wi-Fi | IEEE 802.11n Draft 2.0 2007 | Max 144.4 | 20 | Max 7.22 | 1/3 | 2.4 |
| WiMAX | IEEE 802.16 2004 | 96 | 20 (1.75, 3.5, 7...) | 4.8 | 1/4 | 1.2 |
| Digital radio | DAB | 0.576 to 1.152 | 1.712 | 0.34 to 0.67 | 1/5 | 0.08 to 0.17 |
| Digital radio | DAB with SFN | 0.576 to 1.152 | 1.712 | 0.34 to 0.67 | ||
| Digital TV | DVB-T | Max 31.67 Typ 22.0 | 8 | Max 4.0 Typ 2.8 | 1/5 | 0.55 |
| Digital TV | DVB-T with SFN | Max 31.67 Typ 22.0 | 8 | Max 4.0 Typ 2.8 | ||
| Digital TV | DVB-H | 5.5 to 11 | 8 | 0.68 to 1.4 | 1/5 | 0.14 to 0.28 |
| Digital TV | DVB-H with SFN | 5.5 to 11 | 8 | 0.68 to 1.4 | ||
| Digital Cable TV via fiber optical nodes | 256-QAM | 38 | 6 | 6.33 | 1 | 6.33 |
Notes
1. ^ Anders Furuskär, Jonas Näslund and HÃ¥kan Olofsson, "Edge—Enhanced data rates for GSM and TDMA/136 evolution", Ericsson Review no 1, 1999, [1]
2. ^ [2]
3. ^ [3]
2. ^ [2]
3. ^ [3]
See also
Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of, for example, a filter, a communication channel, or a signal spectrum, and is typically measured in hertz.
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physical layer is level one in the seven-level OSI model of computer networking as well as in the five-layer TCP/IP reference model. It performs services requested by the data link layer.
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Media Access Control (MAC) data communication protocol sub-layer, also known as the Medium Access Control, is a part of the data link layer specified in the seven-layer OSI model (layer 2).
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In telecommunications and computer networks, a channel access method or multiple access method allows several terminals connected to the same physical medium to transmit over it and to share its capacity.
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BIT is an acronym for:
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- Bannari amman Institute of Technology
- Bangalore Institute of Technology
- Beijing Institute of Technology
- Benzisothiazolinone
- Bilateral Investment Treaty
- Bhilai Institute of Technology - Durg
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second (SI symbol: s), sometimes abbreviated sec., is the name of a unit of time, and is the International System of Units (SI) base unit of time.
SI prefixes are frequently combined with the word second to denote subdivisions of the second, e.g.
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SI prefixes are frequently combined with the word second to denote subdivisions of the second, e.g.
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Hz or hz may mean:
HZ, in all capitals, can stand for:
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- Herero language (ISO 639 alpha-2, hz)
- Hertz, unit of frequency
HZ, in all capitals, can stand for:
- Hazard
- Herpes Zoster
- Horizons, a computer game
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In electrical engineering and computer science, channel capacity is the tightest upper bound on the amount of information that can be reliably transmitted over a communications channel.
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throughput is the amount of digital data per time unit that is delivered over a physical or logical link, or that is passing through a certain network node. For example, it may be the amount of data that is delivered to a certain network terminal or host computer, or between two
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- For the musical use of "modulation" as a change of key, see modulation (music).
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In telecommunication, forward error correction (FEC) is a system of error control for data transmission, whereby the sender adds redundant data to its messages, which allows the receiver to detect and correct errors (within some bound) without the need to ask the sender for
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hertz (symbol: Hz) is the SI unit of frequency. Its base unit is cycle/s or s-1 (also called inverse seconds, reciprocal seconds). In English, hertz is used as both singular and plural.
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56k modems are voiceband modems capable of download speeds near 56 kbit/s (7 KByte/s) when connecting to a service that has ISDN or other digital connection to the phone network. The upload speed is usually limited to 33.
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In telecommunication, intersymbol interference (ISI) means a form of distortion of a signal that causes the previously transmitted symbols to have an effect on the currently received symbol.
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In telecommunication, forward error correction (FEC) is a system of error control for data transmission, whereby the sender adds redundant data to its messages, which allows the receiver to detect and correct errors (within some bound) without the need to ask the sender for
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The code rate or information rate of a forward error correction (FEC) code, for example a convolutional code, states what portion of the total amount of information that is useful (non redundant). The code rate is typically a fractional number.
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Signal-to-noise ratio (often abbreviated SNR or S/N) is an electrical engineering concept defined as the ratio of a signal power to the noise power corrupting the signal.
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Bit error indicates the number of bits of a data stream over a communication channel that have been altered by noise. Commonly notated as bit error ratio (BER), the ratio of the number of failed bits to the total number of bits sent over the channel.
See also error burst.
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See also error burst.
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The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit of measurement that expresses the magnitude of a physical quantity (usually power) relative to a specified or implied reference level.
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In computer networks (including wireless networks), goodput is the application level throughput, i.e. the number of useful bits per unit of time forwarded by the network from a certain source address to a certain destination, excluding protocol overhead, and excluding retransmitted
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throughput is the amount of digital data per time unit that is delivered over a physical or logical link, or that is passing through a certain network node. For example, it may be the amount of data that is delivered to a certain network terminal or host computer, or between two
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mobile phone or cell phone is a long-range, portable electronic device used for mobile communication. In addition to the standard voice function of a telephone, current mobile phones can support many additional services such as SMS for text messaging, email, packet switching
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Spread-spectrum techniques are methods by which energy generated in a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth.
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This article or section may be confusing or unclear for some readers.
Please [improve the article] or discuss this issue on the talk page. This article has been tagged since December 2006.
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Please [improve the article] or discuss this issue on the talk page. This article has been tagged since December 2006.
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While the term wireless network may technically be used to refer to any type of network that is wireless, the term is most commonly used to refer to a telecommunications network whose interconnections between nodes is implemented without the use of wires, such as a
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cell site is a term used primarily in North America for a site where antennas and electronic communications equipment are placed to create a cell in a mobile phone network (cellular network).
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throughput is the amount of digital data per time unit that is delivered over a physical or logical link, or that is passing through a certain network node. For example, it may be the amount of data that is delivered to a certain network terminal or host computer, or between two
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In computer networks (including wireless networks), goodput is the application level throughput, i.e. the number of useful bits per unit of time forwarded by the network from a certain source address to a certain destination, excluding protocol overhead, and excluding retransmitted
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In telecommunications and computer networks, a channel access method or multiple access method allows several terminals connected to the same physical medium to transmit over it and to share its capacity.
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Radio resource management (RRM) is the system level control of co-channel interference and other radio transmission characteristics in wireless communication systems, for example cellular networks, wireless networks and broadcasting systems.
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