Information about Science And Technology In Ancient India
ancient India covered many major branches of human knowledge and activities, including mathematics, astronomy and physics, metallurgy, medical science and surgery, fine arts, mechanical and production technology, civil engineering and architecture, shipbuilding and navigation, sports and games.
According to the 19th century British historian, Grant Duff:
"Many of the advances in the sciences that we consider today to have been made in Europe were in fact made in India centuries ago."
The first named authors writing treatises on astronomy emerge from the 5th century CE, the date when the classical period of Indian astronomy can be said to begin. Besides the theories of Aryabhata in the Aryabhatiya and the lost Arya-siddhānta, we find the Pancha-Siddhāntika of Varahamihira. From this time on, we find a predominance of geocentric models, and possibly heliocentric models, in Indian astronomy, in contrast to the "Merucentric" astronomy of Puranic, Jaina and Buddhist traditions whose actual mathematics has been largely lost and only fabulous accounts remain.
The astronomy and the astrology of ancient India (Jyotisha) is based upon sidereal calculations, although a tropical system was also used in a few cases. For example, Uttarayana (Uttarāyana उत्तरायण) was determined according to a tropical system in the Mahabharata, or by Lagadha in the Vedanga Jyotisha. But even then, sidereal astronomy was the mainstay. Now, even Uttarāyana is determined according to the sidereal system of Hindus.
Linguistics was pursued in ancient India for many centuries. The Sanskrit grammar of Pāṇini (c. 520 – 460 BCE), who is often considered the founder of linguistics, contains a particularly detailed description of Sanskrit morphology, phonology and roots, evincing a high level of linguistic insight and analysis. In particular, he is most famous for formulating the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology in the text Aṣṭādhyāyī. His sophisticated grammar of Sanskrit continues to be in use to this day. The Indian grammatical tradition is believed to have been active for many centuries before Pāṇini, and anticipates by millennia certain developments in the West, such as the phoneme and the generation of word forms by the successive application of morphological rules for example. (Outside of India, the phoneme seems to have been discovered and forgotten several times through history.)
The South Indian linguist Tolkāppiyar (c. 3rd century BCE) wrote the Tolkāppiyam, the grammar of Tamil, which is also still in use today. Bhartrihari (c. 450 – 510) was another important author on Indic linguistic theory. He theorized the act of speech as being made up of three stages: conceptualization by the speaker; performance of speaking; and comprehension by the interpreter. The work of Pāṇini, and the later Indian linguist Bhartrihari, had a significant influence on many of the foundational ideas proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure, professor of Sanskrit, who is widely considered the father of modern structural linguistics.
Ayurveda has always been preserved by the people of India as a traditional "science of life", despite increasing adoption of European medical techniques during the time of British rule. For several decades the reputation and skills of the various Ayurvedic schools declined markedly as Western medicine and Western-style hospitals were built. However, beginning in the 1970s, a gradual recognition of value of Ayurveda returned, and today Ayurvedic hospitals and practitioners are flourishing throughout all of India. As well, the production and marketing of Ayurvedic herbal medicines has dramatically increased, as well as scientific documentation of benefits. Today, Ayurvedic medicines are available throughout the world.
A number of Indian theories on physics have attracted the attention of Indologists. Veteran Australian Indologist Arthur Llewellyn Basham has concluded that:
The concept of the atom in ancient India derives from the classification of the material world in five basic elements by Indian philosophers. This classification existed since Vedic times (c. 1500 BCE). The elements were the earth (prithvi), fire (agni), air (vayu), water (jaal) and ether or space (aksha). The elements were associated with human sensory perceptions: smell, touch, vision, taste and ether/space respectively. Later, Buddhist philosophers replaced ether/space with life, joy and sorrow.
Ancient Indian philosophers believed that all elements except ether were physically palpable and hence comprised of minuscule particles. The smallest particle, which could not be subdivided, was called paramanu in Sanskrit (shortened to parmanu), from parama (ultimate or beyond) and anu (atom). Thus, "paramanu" literally means "beyond atom" and this was a concept at an abstract level which suggested the possibility of splitting atoms, which is now the source of atomic energy. However, the term "atom" should not be conflated with the concept of atom as it is understood today.
The 6th century BCE Indian philosopher Kanada was the first person who went deep systematically in such theorization. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayana, a contemporary of Buddha, also propounded the ideas of atomic constitution of the material world. All these were based on logic and philosophy and lacked any empirical basis for want of commensurate technology.
Will Durant wrote in Our Oriental Heritage:
In ancient India, the philosophical schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika, from around the 6th – 5th century BCE, developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements (tanmatra) out of which emerge the gross elements. The atomicity of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous.
According to the Vaisheshika school, motion is defined in terms of the movement of the physical atoms and it appears that it is taken to be non-instantaneous. Light rays are taken to be a stream of high velocity of tejas (fire) atoms. The particles of light can exhibit different characteristics depending on the speed and the arrangements of the tejas atoms. Around the first century, the Vishnu Purana refers to sunlight as "the seven rays of the sun".
Later in 499, Aryabhata, who proposed a heliocentric solar system of gravitation in his Aryabhatiya, wrote that the planets and the Moon do not have their own light but reflect the light of the Sun.
The Indian Buddhists, such as Dignāga in the 5th century and Dharmakirti in the 7th century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy, similar to the modern concept of photons, though they also viewed all matter as being composed of these light/energy particles.
Ancient India’s development in chemistry was not confined at an abstract level like physics, but found development in a variety of practical activities.
Metallurgy has remained central to all civilizations, from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, and later. It is believed that the basic idea of smelting reached ancient India from Mesopotamia and the Near East. In ancient India, the science of smelting reached a high level of refinement and precision. In the 5th century BCE, the Greek historian Herodotus observed that the:
The ancient Romans used armour and cutlery made of Indian iron. In India itself, certain objects testify to the high level of metallurgy. An iron pillar believed to be cast in the Gupta period around the 5th century stands by the side of Qutub Minar World heritage site in Delhi. It is 7.32 m tall, with a diameter of 40 cm at the base tapering to 30 cm at the top, and is estimated to weigh 6 tonnes. Standing in the open for last 1500 years, it has withstood wind, heat and water without rusting, except for very minor natural erosion. This kind of rust-proof iron was not possible until iron and steel was discovered a few decades before.
An influential Indian metallurgist and alchemist was Nagarjuna (b. 931). He wrote the treatise Rasaratnakara that deals with preparations of rasa (mercury) compounds. It gives a survey of the status of metallurgy and alchemy in the land. Extraction of metals such as silver, gold, tin and copper from their ores and their purification were also mentioned in the treatise.
Ancient India's advanced chemical science also finds expression in activities like distillation of perfumes and fragrant ointments, manufacturing of dyes and chemicals, preparation of pigments and colours, and polishing of mirrors. Paintings found on walls of Ajanta and Ellora World Heritage sites still look fresh after 1000 years, further testifying to the high level of science.
Will Durant wrote in Our Oriental Heritage:
During the Kushan Empire and Mauryan Empire, Indian architecture and civil engineering reached regions like Baluchistan and Afghanistan. Statues of Buddha were cut out, covering entire mountain cliffs, like in Buddhas of Bamyan, Afghanistan. Over a period of time, ancient Indian art of construction blended with Greek styles and spread to Central Asia.
On the east, Buddhism took Indian style architecture and civil engineering to places like Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, China, Korea and Japan. Angkor Wat is a testimony to the contribution of Indian civil engineering and architecture to Cambodian Khmer heritage.
In mainland India, there are several ancient architectural marvels, including World Heritage Sites like Ajanta, Ellora, Khajuraho, Konark, Mahabodhi Temple, Sanchi, Brihadisvara Temple and Mahabalipuram.
The science of shipbuilding and navigation were well-known to ancient Indians. Sanskrit and Pali texts are replete with maritime references. Indians, particularly from coastal regions, traded with several nations across the Bay of Bengal like Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, even China and South America, and across the Arabian Sea like Arabia, Egypt and Persia. A panel found in Mohenjodaro depicts a sailing craft, and thousands of years later Ajanta murals also depict a sea-faring ship.
Around 500 CE, sextants and mariner’s compass were not unknown to ancient Indian shipbuilders and navigators. J.L. Reid, a member of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders, England, around the beginning of the 20th century wrote in the Bombay Gazetteer (Volume XIII, Part II, Appendix A) that "The early Hindu astrologers are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying foundations, and other religious ceremonies. The Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil, pointing north. The fact of this older Hindu compass seems placed beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word MATSYA-YANTRA ("fish-machine"), which Molesworth calls "mariner's compass".
Music had a divine character and the Indian Goddess of learning, Saraswati, is always shown holding a veena. Likewise, Krishna is associated with the "bansuri", (flute) — a musical instrument which traveled throughout the world from India. Indian devotional songs and reciting influenced religious recitations in several eastern countries, where the style was adopted by Buddhists monks. India developed several types of musical instruments and forms of dancing, with delicate body movements and grace.
Paintings have remained the oldest art form as found in several cave paintings across the globe. Pre-historic cave paintings have been discovered in India in places like Bhimbetka, a UNESCO World Heritage site. In relatively recent times, rock paintings and carvings had significantly developed, and many such carvings have been found dating to the period of Emperor Ashoka. Indian influences may be seen in paintings at Bamyan, Afghanistan, and in Miran and Domko in Central Asia. Sometimes, they depict not only Buddha but Hindu deities such as Shiva, Ganesha and Surya.
The game of cards also developed in ancient India. Abul Fazal was a scholar in the court of Mughal emperor Akbar. His book, Ain-e-Akbari, which mirrors life of that time, records game of cards is of Indian origins. The Buddha games list, which dates back to the 6th or 5th century BCE, is the earliest list of games known.
Indian martial arts have been practiced for millennia. In particular, Kalaripayattu is native to the South Indian state of Kerala. Kalaripayattu consists of a series of intricate movements that train the body and mind.
..... Click the link for more information.
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According to the 19th century British historian, Grant Duff:
"Many of the advances in the sciences that we consider today to have been made in Europe were in fact made in India centuries ago."
Sciences
Astronomy
- Further information: Hindu cosmology Jyotisha
The first named authors writing treatises on astronomy emerge from the 5th century CE, the date when the classical period of Indian astronomy can be said to begin. Besides the theories of Aryabhata in the Aryabhatiya and the lost Arya-siddhānta, we find the Pancha-Siddhāntika of Varahamihira. From this time on, we find a predominance of geocentric models, and possibly heliocentric models, in Indian astronomy, in contrast to the "Merucentric" astronomy of Puranic, Jaina and Buddhist traditions whose actual mathematics has been largely lost and only fabulous accounts remain.
The astronomy and the astrology of ancient India (Jyotisha) is based upon sidereal calculations, although a tropical system was also used in a few cases. For example, Uttarayana (Uttarāyana उत्तरायण) was determined according to a tropical system in the Mahabharata, or by Lagadha in the Vedanga Jyotisha. But even then, sidereal astronomy was the mainstay. Now, even Uttarāyana is determined according to the sidereal system of Hindus.
Linguistics
- Further information: Panini (grammarian), Bhartrihari, History of linguistics
Linguistics was pursued in ancient India for many centuries. The Sanskrit grammar of Pāṇini (c. 520 – 460 BCE), who is often considered the founder of linguistics, contains a particularly detailed description of Sanskrit morphology, phonology and roots, evincing a high level of linguistic insight and analysis. In particular, he is most famous for formulating the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology in the text Aṣṭādhyāyī. His sophisticated grammar of Sanskrit continues to be in use to this day. The Indian grammatical tradition is believed to have been active for many centuries before Pāṇini, and anticipates by millennia certain developments in the West, such as the phoneme and the generation of word forms by the successive application of morphological rules for example. (Outside of India, the phoneme seems to have been discovered and forgotten several times through history.)
The South Indian linguist Tolkāppiyar (c. 3rd century BCE) wrote the Tolkāppiyam, the grammar of Tamil, which is also still in use today. Bhartrihari (c. 450 – 510) was another important author on Indic linguistic theory. He theorized the act of speech as being made up of three stages: conceptualization by the speaker; performance of speaking; and comprehension by the interpreter. The work of Pāṇini, and the later Indian linguist Bhartrihari, had a significant influence on many of the foundational ideas proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure, professor of Sanskrit, who is widely considered the father of modern structural linguistics.
Mathematics
Medicine and surgery
Ayurveda has always been preserved by the people of India as a traditional "science of life", despite increasing adoption of European medical techniques during the time of British rule. For several decades the reputation and skills of the various Ayurvedic schools declined markedly as Western medicine and Western-style hospitals were built. However, beginning in the 1970s, a gradual recognition of value of Ayurveda returned, and today Ayurvedic hospitals and practitioners are flourishing throughout all of India. As well, the production and marketing of Ayurvedic herbal medicines has dramatically increased, as well as scientific documentation of benefits. Today, Ayurvedic medicines are available throughout the world.
Physics
- ''Further information: Indian physics
A number of Indian theories on physics have attracted the attention of Indologists. Veteran Australian Indologist Arthur Llewellyn Basham has concluded that:
Atomism
- ''Further information: Indian atomism
The concept of the atom in ancient India derives from the classification of the material world in five basic elements by Indian philosophers. This classification existed since Vedic times (c. 1500 BCE). The elements were the earth (prithvi), fire (agni), air (vayu), water (jaal) and ether or space (aksha). The elements were associated with human sensory perceptions: smell, touch, vision, taste and ether/space respectively. Later, Buddhist philosophers replaced ether/space with life, joy and sorrow.
Ancient Indian philosophers believed that all elements except ether were physically palpable and hence comprised of minuscule particles. The smallest particle, which could not be subdivided, was called paramanu in Sanskrit (shortened to parmanu), from parama (ultimate or beyond) and anu (atom). Thus, "paramanu" literally means "beyond atom" and this was a concept at an abstract level which suggested the possibility of splitting atoms, which is now the source of atomic energy. However, the term "atom" should not be conflated with the concept of atom as it is understood today.
The 6th century BCE Indian philosopher Kanada was the first person who went deep systematically in such theorization. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayana, a contemporary of Buddha, also propounded the ideas of atomic constitution of the material world. All these were based on logic and philosophy and lacked any empirical basis for want of commensurate technology.
Will Durant wrote in Our Oriental Heritage:
Light
- Further information: Theories about light
In ancient India, the philosophical schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika, from around the 6th – 5th century BCE, developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements (tanmatra) out of which emerge the gross elements. The atomicity of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous.
According to the Vaisheshika school, motion is defined in terms of the movement of the physical atoms and it appears that it is taken to be non-instantaneous. Light rays are taken to be a stream of high velocity of tejas (fire) atoms. The particles of light can exhibit different characteristics depending on the speed and the arrangements of the tejas atoms. Around the first century, the Vishnu Purana refers to sunlight as "the seven rays of the sun".
Later in 499, Aryabhata, who proposed a heliocentric solar system of gravitation in his Aryabhatiya, wrote that the planets and the Moon do not have their own light but reflect the light of the Sun.
The Indian Buddhists, such as Dignāga in the 5th century and Dharmakirti in the 7th century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy, similar to the modern concept of photons, though they also viewed all matter as being composed of these light/energy particles.
Technology
Chemistry and metallurgy
Ancient India’s development in chemistry was not confined at an abstract level like physics, but found development in a variety of practical activities.
Metallurgy has remained central to all civilizations, from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, and later. It is believed that the basic idea of smelting reached ancient India from Mesopotamia and the Near East. In ancient India, the science of smelting reached a high level of refinement and precision. In the 5th century BCE, the Greek historian Herodotus observed that the:
The ancient Romans used armour and cutlery made of Indian iron. In India itself, certain objects testify to the high level of metallurgy. An iron pillar believed to be cast in the Gupta period around the 5th century stands by the side of Qutub Minar World heritage site in Delhi. It is 7.32 m tall, with a diameter of 40 cm at the base tapering to 30 cm at the top, and is estimated to weigh 6 tonnes. Standing in the open for last 1500 years, it has withstood wind, heat and water without rusting, except for very minor natural erosion. This kind of rust-proof iron was not possible until iron and steel was discovered a few decades before.
An influential Indian metallurgist and alchemist was Nagarjuna (b. 931). He wrote the treatise Rasaratnakara that deals with preparations of rasa (mercury) compounds. It gives a survey of the status of metallurgy and alchemy in the land. Extraction of metals such as silver, gold, tin and copper from their ores and their purification were also mentioned in the treatise.
Ancient India's advanced chemical science also finds expression in activities like distillation of perfumes and fragrant ointments, manufacturing of dyes and chemicals, preparation of pigments and colours, and polishing of mirrors. Paintings found on walls of Ajanta and Ellora World Heritage sites still look fresh after 1000 years, further testifying to the high level of science.
Will Durant wrote in Our Oriental Heritage:
Civil engineering and architecture
- Further information: Indus Valley Civilization
During the Kushan Empire and Mauryan Empire, Indian architecture and civil engineering reached regions like Baluchistan and Afghanistan. Statues of Buddha were cut out, covering entire mountain cliffs, like in Buddhas of Bamyan, Afghanistan. Over a period of time, ancient Indian art of construction blended with Greek styles and spread to Central Asia.
On the east, Buddhism took Indian style architecture and civil engineering to places like Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, China, Korea and Japan. Angkor Wat is a testimony to the contribution of Indian civil engineering and architecture to Cambodian Khmer heritage.
In mainland India, there are several ancient architectural marvels, including World Heritage Sites like Ajanta, Ellora, Khajuraho, Konark, Mahabodhi Temple, Sanchi, Brihadisvara Temple and Mahabalipuram.
Production technology
Mechanical and production technology of ancient India ensured processing of natural produce and their conversion into merchandise of trade, commerce and export. A number of travelers and historians (including Megasthanes, Ptolemy, Faxian,Xuanzang, Marco Polo, Al Baruni and Ibn Batuta) have indicated a variety of items, which were produced, consumed and exported around that society's "known world" by the ancient Indians.Shipbuilding and navigation
- Further information: Lothal and Indus Valley Civilization: Trade
The science of shipbuilding and navigation were well-known to ancient Indians. Sanskrit and Pali texts are replete with maritime references. Indians, particularly from coastal regions, traded with several nations across the Bay of Bengal like Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, even China and South America, and across the Arabian Sea like Arabia, Egypt and Persia. A panel found in Mohenjodaro depicts a sailing craft, and thousands of years later Ajanta murals also depict a sea-faring ship.
Around 500 CE, sextants and mariner’s compass were not unknown to ancient Indian shipbuilders and navigators. J.L. Reid, a member of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders, England, around the beginning of the 20th century wrote in the Bombay Gazetteer (Volume XIII, Part II, Appendix A) that "The early Hindu astrologers are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying foundations, and other religious ceremonies. The Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil, pointing north. The fact of this older Hindu compass seems placed beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word MATSYA-YANTRA ("fish-machine"), which Molesworth calls "mariner's compass".
Fine arts
Music had a divine character and the Indian Goddess of learning, Saraswati, is always shown holding a veena. Likewise, Krishna is associated with the "bansuri", (flute) — a musical instrument which traveled throughout the world from India. Indian devotional songs and reciting influenced religious recitations in several eastern countries, where the style was adopted by Buddhists monks. India developed several types of musical instruments and forms of dancing, with delicate body movements and grace.
Paintings have remained the oldest art form as found in several cave paintings across the globe. Pre-historic cave paintings have been discovered in India in places like Bhimbetka, a UNESCO World Heritage site. In relatively recent times, rock paintings and carvings had significantly developed, and many such carvings have been found dating to the period of Emperor Ashoka. Indian influences may be seen in paintings at Bamyan, Afghanistan, and in Miran and Domko in Central Asia. Sometimes, they depict not only Buddha but Hindu deities such as Shiva, Ganesha and Surya.
Games and sports
Several games now familiar across the world originated in India: chess, ludo, snakes and ladders, and playing cards. The epic Mahabharata (c. 500 BCE) narrates an incident where a game called chaturanga was played between two groups of warring cousins. In some form or the other, the game continued to evolve into chess. H. J. R. Murry, in his book A History of Chess, concluded that "chess is a descendant of an Indian game played in the 7th century CE". The Encyclopædia Britannica states, "we find the best authorities agreeing that chess existed in India before it is known to have been played anywhere else".The game of cards also developed in ancient India. Abul Fazal was a scholar in the court of Mughal emperor Akbar. His book, Ain-e-Akbari, which mirrors life of that time, records game of cards is of Indian origins. The Buddha games list, which dates back to the 6th or 5th century BCE, is the earliest list of games known.
Indian martial arts have been practiced for millennia. In particular, Kalaripayattu is native to the South Indian state of Kerala. Kalaripayattu consists of a series of intricate movements that train the body and mind.
See also
- Indian logic
- History of measurement systems in India
- History of mathematics
- History of astronomy
- Science and technology
References
- Haug, Martin and Basu, Major B. D. (1974). The Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rigveda, Containing the Earliest Speculations of the Brahmans on the Meaning of the Sacrifical Prayers. ISBN 0-404-57848-9
- Joseph, George G. (2000). The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, 2nd edition. Penguin Books, London. ISBN 0691006598
- Kak, Subhash C. (2000). 'Birth and Early Development of Indian Astronomy'. In Selin, Helaine (2000). Astronomy Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy (303-340). Kluwer, Boston. ISBN 0-7923-6363-9
- Teresi, Dick (2002). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science - from the Babylonians to the Maya. Simon & Schuster, New York. ISBN 0-684-83718-8
- Thurston, Hugh (1994). Early Astronomy. Springer-Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-94107-X
- Blavatsky, H. P. (1877). 'Science. Chapter I', Isis Unveiled.
- Kak, Subhash C. (2003). Indian physics: Outline of Early History, ArXiv.
- Malhotra, Rajiv and Patel, Jay (2003-2005). History Of Indian Science & Technology.
External links
- Amazing Sciences from India
- Online course material for InSIGHT, a workshop on traditional Indian sciences for school children conducted by the Computer Science department of Anna University, Chennai, India.
- Traditional Knowledge systems
- Science and technology update from India
- Indian Science Information and Interaction Site
Science and technology in Asia | |
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| 1Transcontinental nations | |
The term South Asia usually refers to the political entities of the region now known as the Indian subcontinent - the Republic of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and the island nations of Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
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History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300 to 1700 BCE. This Bronze Age civilization was followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which witnessed the rise of major kingdoms known as the
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will be treated The South Asian Stone Age covers the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods in South Asia.
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Paleolithic
Homo erectus
Homo erectus lived in South Asia during the Pleistocene Epoch...... Click the link for more information.
Mehrgarh, one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BCE to 3200 BCE) sites in archaeology, lies on the "Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan, and is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia.
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The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BCE, flourished 2600–1900 BCE), abbreviated IVC, was an ancient civilization that flourished in the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys primarily in what is now Pakistan and western India, extending westward into
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Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BCE, in and around the Punjab region. It was named after a cemetery found in "area H" at Harappa.
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Vedic period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the history of India when the sacred Vedic Sanskrit texts such as the Vedas were composed. The associated culture, sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization, was centered on the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
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Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H) culture, also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition. The cultures of the Punjab and Rajasthan in this phase spread eastward across the Gangetic plain.
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Mahajanapadas (महाजनपद) literally means "Great kingdoms" (from Sanskrit Maha = great, Janapada = foothold of tribe = country). Ancient Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya (I. p 213; IV.
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Magadha (मगध) formed one of the sixteen so-called Mahājanapadas (Sanskrit, 'great country') or regions in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the portion of Bihar lying south of the Ganges, with its capital at Rajagriha (modern Rajgir).
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Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE), ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military empire in ancient India.
Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic plains (modern Bihar and Bengal) in the eastern side of
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Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic plains (modern Bihar and Bengal) in the eastern side of
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Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 2nd century BCE since the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding rise of the Satavahana dynasty, beginning with Simuka, from 230 BCE.
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The Sātavāhanas (Marathi: सातवाहन, Telugu:శాతవాహనులు), were a dynasty which ruled from Junnar (Pune), Prathisthapana (Paithan) in Maharashtra and Amaravati
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- See Kushan (Homeworld) for the "Homeworld" exiles.
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Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in the world. It was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 600 CE and covered most of Northern India, the region presently in the nation of Pakistan and what is now western India and Bangladesh.
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Pala Empire was a dynasty in control of the northern and eastern Indian subcontinent, mainly the Bengal and Bihar regions, from the 8th to the 12th century. The name Pala (Modern Bengali পাল pal
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History of Tamil Nadu
Chronology of Tamil history
Ancient Tamil country
Sources
Geography Political history
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The Delhi Sultanate (Urdu:دلی سلطنت), or Sultanat-e-Hind (Urdu: سلطنتِ هند) / Sultanat-e-Dilli (Urdu:
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The Deccan sultanates were five late medieval kingdoms–-Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar of south-central India. The Deccan sultanates were located on the Deccan Plateau, between the Krishna River and the Vindhya Range.
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The Hoysala Empire (Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ) (pronunciation: ]
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The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083CE to 1323CE[1]. It was one of the great Telugu kingdoms that lasted for centuries.
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Sangama Dynasty
Harihara Raya I 1336-1356
Bukka Raya I 1356-1377
Harihara Raya II 1377-1404
Virupaksha Raya 1404-1405
Bukka Raya II 1405-1406
Deva Raya I 1406-1422
Ramachandra Raya 1422
Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya 1422-1424
Deva Raya II 1424-1446
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Harihara Raya I 1336-1356
Bukka Raya I 1356-1377
Harihara Raya II 1377-1404
Virupaksha Raya 1404-1405
Bukka Raya II 1405-1406
Deva Raya I 1406-1422
Ramachandra Raya 1422
Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya 1422-1424
Deva Raya II 1424-1446
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The Mughal Empire (Persian: سلطنت مغولی هند,
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The Sikh Confederacy (from 1716-1799) was a collection of small to medium sized independent sovereign, punjabi Sikh states, which were governed by barons[1], in Punjab[2].
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The Sikh Confederacy (from 1716-1799) was a collection of small to medium sized independent sovereign, punjabi Sikh states, which were governed by barons[1], in Punjab[2].
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Punjab was a province of British India. It was split in 1947 between India and Pakistan. It comprised the present day areas of:
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- Punjab Province, Pakistan
- Punjab State, India
- Haryana State, India
- Himachal Pradesh State, India
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Punjab pronunciation (Punjabi: ਪੰ
header 1 header 2 header 3
row 1, cell 1 row 1, cell 2 row 1, cell 3
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header 1 header 2 header 3
row 1, cell 1 row 1, cell 2 row 1, cell 3
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Punjab pronunciation (Punjabi: ਪੰ
header 1 header 2 header 3
row 1, cell 1 row 1, cell 2 row 1, cell 3
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header 1 header 2 header 3
row 1, cell 1 row 1, cell 2 row 1, cell 3
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''
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- See also:
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