Information about Public Health
Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. Health is defined and promoted differently by many organizations. The World Health Organization, the United Nations body that sets standards and provides global surveillance of disease, defines health as: "A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." Public health experts agree that nutritional, spiritual, and intellectual aspects also affect an individual's health.
The population in question can be as small as a handful of people or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a pandemic). Public health has many sub-fields, but is typically divided into the categories of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental, social and behavioral health, and occupational health, are also important fields in public health.
An alternative definition by Winslow from Modern Medicine in 1920 is: "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts and informed choices of society, organisations, public and private, communities and individuals."
Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, to respond to domestic health issues. In the United States, the frontline of public health initiatives are state and local health departments. The United States Public Health Service (PHS), led by the Surgeon General of the United States, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, headquartered in Atlanta and a part of the PHS, are involved with several international health activities, in addition to their national duties.
There is a vast discrepancy in access to healthcare and public health intiatives between developed nations and developing nations. In the developing world, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained health workers or monetary resources to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention. As a result, a large majority of disease and mortality in the developing world results from and contributes to extreme poverty. For example, many African governments spend less than USD$10 per person per year on healthcare, while, in the United States, the federal government spent approximately USD$4,500 per capita in 2000.
Many diseases are preventable through simple, non-medical methods. Public health plays a very important role in prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries, either through local health systems or through international non-governmental organizations.
The two major postgraduate professional degrees related to this field are the Master of Public Health (MPH) or the (much rarer) Doctor of Public Health (DrPH). Many public health researchers hold PhDs in their fields of speciality, while some public health programs confer the equivalent Doctor of Science degree instead. The United States medical residency specialty is General Preventive Medicine and Public Health.
During the 14th century Black Death in Europe, it was believed that removing bodies of the dead would further prevent the spread of the bacterial infection. This did little to stem the plague, however, which was most likely spread by rodent-borne fleas. Burning parts of cities resulted in much greater benefit, since it destroyed the rodent infestations. The development of quarantine in the medieval period helped mitigate the effects of other infectious diseases. However, according to Michel Foucault, the plague model of governmentality was later controverted by the cholera model. A Cholera pandemic devastated Europe between 1829 and 1851, and was first fought by the use of what Foucault called "social medicine", which focused on flux, circulation of air, location of cemeteries, etc. All those concerns, born of the miasma theory of disease, were mixed with urbanistic concerns for the management of populations, which Foucault designated as the concept of "biopower". The German conceptualized this in the Polizeiwissenschaft ("Science of police").
The science of epidemiology was founded by John Snow's identification of a polluted public water well as the source of an 1854 cholera outbreak in London. Dr. Snow believed in the germ theory of disease as opposed to the prevailing miasma theory. Although miasma theory correctly teaches that disease is a result of poor sanitation, it was based upon the prevailing theory of spontaneous generation. Germ theory developed slowly: despite Anton van Leeuwenhoek's observations of Microorganisms, (which are now known to cause many of the most common infectious diseases) in the year 1680 , the modern era of public health did not begin until the 1880s, with Robert Koch's germ theory and Louis Pasteur's production of artificial vaccines.
In America, public health worker Dr. Sara Josephine Baker lowered the infant mortality rate using preventative methods. She established many programs to help the poor in New York City keep their infants healthy. Dr. Baker led teams of nurses into the crowded neighborhoods of Hell's Kitchen and taught mothers how to dress, feed, and bathe their babies. After WWI many states and countries followed her example in order to lower infant mortality rates.
During the 20th century, the dramatic increase in average life span is widely credited to public health achievements, such as vaccination programs and control of infectious diseases, effective safety policies such as motor-vehicle and occupational safety, improved family planning, fluoridation of drinking water, anti-smoking measures, and programs designed to decrease chronic disease.
Meanwhile, the developing world remained plagued by largely preventable infectious diseases, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. Front-page headlines continue to present society with public health issues on a daily basis: emerging infectious diseases such as SARS, making its way from China to Canada and the United States; prescription drug benefits under public programs such as Medicare; the increase of HIV-AIDS among young heterosexual women and its spread in South Africa; the increase of childhood obesity and the concomitant increase in type II diabetes among children; the impact of adolescent pregnancy; and the ongoing social, economic and health disasters related to the 2005 Tsunami and Hurricane Katrina in 2006. These are all ongoing public health challenges.
Since the 1980s, the growing field of population health has broadened the focus of public health from individual behaviors and risk factors to population-level issues such as inequality, poverty, and education. Modern public health is often concerned with addressing determinants of health across a population, rather than advocating for individual behaviour change. There is a recognition that our health is affected by many factors including where we live, genetics, our income, our educational status and our social relationships - these are known as "social determinants of health." A social gradient in health runs through society, with those that are poorest generally suffering the worst health. However even those in the middle classes will generally have worse health outcomes than those of a higher social stratum (WHO, 2003). The new public health seeks to address these health inequalities by advocating for population-based policies that improve the health of the whole population in an equitable fashion.
The burden of treating conditions caused by unemployment, poverty, unfit housing and environmental pollution have been calculated to account for between 16-22% of the clinical budget of the British National Health Service. [1]
UK Public health functions include: • Health surveillance, monitoring and analysis • Investigation of disease outbreaks, epidemics and risk to health • Establishing, designing and managing health promotion and disease prevention programmes • Enabling and empowering communities to promote health and reduce inequalities • Creating and sustaining cross-Government and intersectoral partnerships to improve health and reduce inequalities •Ensuring compliance with regulations and laws to protect and promote health • Developing and maintaining a well-educated and trained, multi-disciplinary public health workforce • Ensuring the effective performance of NHS services to meet goals in improving health, preventing disease and reducing inequalities • Research, development, evaluation and innovation • Quality assuring the public health function
Today, most governments recognize the importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence of disease, disability, and the effects of aging, although public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine. In recent years, public health programs providing vaccinations have made incredible strides in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox, a disease that plagued humanity for thousands of years.
One of the most important public health issues facing the world currently is HIV/AIDS. Tuberculosis, which claimed the lives of authors Franz Kafka and Charlotte Brontë, and composer Franz Schubert, among others, is also reemerging as a major concern due to the rise of HIV/AIDS-related infections and the development of tuberculin strains that are resistant to standard antibiotics.
Another major public health concern is diabetes. In 2006, according to the World Health Organization, at least 171 million people worldwide suffered from diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is estimated that by the year 2030, this number will double.
A controversial aspect of public health is the control of smoking. Many nations have implemented major initiatives to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on smoking in some or all public places. Proponents argue by presenting evidence that smoking is one of the major killers in all developed countries, and that therefore governments have a duty to reduce the death rate, both through limiting passive (second-hand) smoking and by providing fewer opportunities for smokers to smoke. Opponents say that this undermines individual freedom and personal responsibility (often using the phrase nanny state in the UK), and worry that the state may be emboldened to remove more and more choice in the name of better population health overall. However, proponents counter that inflicting disease on other people via passive smoking is not a human right, and in fact smokers are still free to smoke in their own homes.
..... Click the link for more information.
The Master of Public Health (MPH) is a professional master's degree awarded for studies in areas related to public health. In the United States the Council on Education for Public Health (CEPH) accredit schools of public health through a
..... Click the link for more information.
Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated Ph.D.
..... Click the link for more information.
The population in question can be as small as a handful of people or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a pandemic). Public health has many sub-fields, but is typically divided into the categories of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental, social and behavioral health, and occupational health, are also important fields in public health.
An alternative definition by Winslow from Modern Medicine in 1920 is: "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts and informed choices of society, organisations, public and private, communities and individuals."
Objectives
The focus of a public health intervention is to prevent rather than treat a disease through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviors. In addition to these activities, in many cases treating a disease can be vital to preventing it in others, such as during an outbreak of an infectious disease. Vaccination programs and distribution of condoms are examples of public health measures.Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, to respond to domestic health issues. In the United States, the frontline of public health initiatives are state and local health departments. The United States Public Health Service (PHS), led by the Surgeon General of the United States, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, headquartered in Atlanta and a part of the PHS, are involved with several international health activities, in addition to their national duties.
There is a vast discrepancy in access to healthcare and public health intiatives between developed nations and developing nations. In the developing world, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained health workers or monetary resources to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention. As a result, a large majority of disease and mortality in the developing world results from and contributes to extreme poverty. For example, many African governments spend less than USD$10 per person per year on healthcare, while, in the United States, the federal government spent approximately USD$4,500 per capita in 2000.
Many diseases are preventable through simple, non-medical methods. Public health plays a very important role in prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries, either through local health systems or through international non-governmental organizations.
The two major postgraduate professional degrees related to this field are the Master of Public Health (MPH) or the (much rarer) Doctor of Public Health (DrPH). Many public health researchers hold PhDs in their fields of speciality, while some public health programs confer the equivalent Doctor of Science degree instead. The United States medical residency specialty is General Preventive Medicine and Public Health.
History of public health
In some ways, public health is a modern concept, although it has roots in antiquity. From the beginnings of human civilization, it was recognized that polluted water and lack of proper waste disposal spread vector-borne diseases. Early religions attempted to regulate behavior that specifically related to health, from types of food eaten, to regulating certain indulgent behaviors, such as drinking alcohol or sexual relations. The establishment of governments placed responsibility on leaders to develop public health policies and programs in order to gain some understanding of the causes of disease and thus ensure social stability prosperity, and maintain order.Early public health interventions
By Roman times, it was well understood that proper diversion of human waste was a necessary tenet of public health in urban areas. The Chinese developed the practice of variolation following a smallpox epidemic around 1000 BC. An individual without the disease could gain some measure of immunity against it by inhaling the dried crusts that formed around lesions of infected individuals. Also, children were protected by inoculating a scratch on their forearms with the pus from a lesion. This practice was not documented in the West until the early-1700s, and was used on a very limited basis. The practice of vaccination did not become prevalent until the 1820s, following the work of Edward Jenner to treat smallpox.During the 14th century Black Death in Europe, it was believed that removing bodies of the dead would further prevent the spread of the bacterial infection. This did little to stem the plague, however, which was most likely spread by rodent-borne fleas. Burning parts of cities resulted in much greater benefit, since it destroyed the rodent infestations. The development of quarantine in the medieval period helped mitigate the effects of other infectious diseases. However, according to Michel Foucault, the plague model of governmentality was later controverted by the cholera model. A Cholera pandemic devastated Europe between 1829 and 1851, and was first fought by the use of what Foucault called "social medicine", which focused on flux, circulation of air, location of cemeteries, etc. All those concerns, born of the miasma theory of disease, were mixed with urbanistic concerns for the management of populations, which Foucault designated as the concept of "biopower". The German conceptualized this in the Polizeiwissenschaft ("Science of police").
The science of epidemiology was founded by John Snow's identification of a polluted public water well as the source of an 1854 cholera outbreak in London. Dr. Snow believed in the germ theory of disease as opposed to the prevailing miasma theory. Although miasma theory correctly teaches that disease is a result of poor sanitation, it was based upon the prevailing theory of spontaneous generation. Germ theory developed slowly: despite Anton van Leeuwenhoek's observations of Microorganisms, (which are now known to cause many of the most common infectious diseases) in the year 1680 , the modern era of public health did not begin until the 1880s, with Robert Koch's germ theory and Louis Pasteur's production of artificial vaccines.
Modern public health
As the prevalence of infectious diseases in the developed world decreased through the 20th century, public health began to put more focus on chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease.In America, public health worker Dr. Sara Josephine Baker lowered the infant mortality rate using preventative methods. She established many programs to help the poor in New York City keep their infants healthy. Dr. Baker led teams of nurses into the crowded neighborhoods of Hell's Kitchen and taught mothers how to dress, feed, and bathe their babies. After WWI many states and countries followed her example in order to lower infant mortality rates.
During the 20th century, the dramatic increase in average life span is widely credited to public health achievements, such as vaccination programs and control of infectious diseases, effective safety policies such as motor-vehicle and occupational safety, improved family planning, fluoridation of drinking water, anti-smoking measures, and programs designed to decrease chronic disease.
Meanwhile, the developing world remained plagued by largely preventable infectious diseases, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. Front-page headlines continue to present society with public health issues on a daily basis: emerging infectious diseases such as SARS, making its way from China to Canada and the United States; prescription drug benefits under public programs such as Medicare; the increase of HIV-AIDS among young heterosexual women and its spread in South Africa; the increase of childhood obesity and the concomitant increase in type II diabetes among children; the impact of adolescent pregnancy; and the ongoing social, economic and health disasters related to the 2005 Tsunami and Hurricane Katrina in 2006. These are all ongoing public health challenges.
Since the 1980s, the growing field of population health has broadened the focus of public health from individual behaviors and risk factors to population-level issues such as inequality, poverty, and education. Modern public health is often concerned with addressing determinants of health across a population, rather than advocating for individual behaviour change. There is a recognition that our health is affected by many factors including where we live, genetics, our income, our educational status and our social relationships - these are known as "social determinants of health." A social gradient in health runs through society, with those that are poorest generally suffering the worst health. However even those in the middle classes will generally have worse health outcomes than those of a higher social stratum (WHO, 2003). The new public health seeks to address these health inequalities by advocating for population-based policies that improve the health of the whole population in an equitable fashion.
The burden of treating conditions caused by unemployment, poverty, unfit housing and environmental pollution have been calculated to account for between 16-22% of the clinical budget of the British National Health Service. [1]
UK Public health functions include: • Health surveillance, monitoring and analysis • Investigation of disease outbreaks, epidemics and risk to health • Establishing, designing and managing health promotion and disease prevention programmes • Enabling and empowering communities to promote health and reduce inequalities • Creating and sustaining cross-Government and intersectoral partnerships to improve health and reduce inequalities •Ensuring compliance with regulations and laws to protect and promote health • Developing and maintaining a well-educated and trained, multi-disciplinary public health workforce • Ensuring the effective performance of NHS services to meet goals in improving health, preventing disease and reducing inequalities • Research, development, evaluation and innovation • Quality assuring the public health function
Public health programs
)
This 1963 poster featured CDC’s national symbol of public health, the "Wellbee", encouraging the public to receive an oral polio vaccine.
One of the most important public health issues facing the world currently is HIV/AIDS. Tuberculosis, which claimed the lives of authors Franz Kafka and Charlotte Brontë, and composer Franz Schubert, among others, is also reemerging as a major concern due to the rise of HIV/AIDS-related infections and the development of tuberculin strains that are resistant to standard antibiotics.
Another major public health concern is diabetes. In 2006, according to the World Health Organization, at least 171 million people worldwide suffered from diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is estimated that by the year 2030, this number will double.
A controversial aspect of public health is the control of smoking. Many nations have implemented major initiatives to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on smoking in some or all public places. Proponents argue by presenting evidence that smoking is one of the major killers in all developed countries, and that therefore governments have a duty to reduce the death rate, both through limiting passive (second-hand) smoking and by providing fewer opportunities for smokers to smoke. Opponents say that this undermines individual freedom and personal responsibility (often using the phrase nanny state in the UK), and worry that the state may be emboldened to remove more and more choice in the name of better population health overall. However, proponents counter that inflicting disease on other people via passive smoking is not a human right, and in fact smokers are still free to smoke in their own homes.
Economics of public health
The application of economics to the realm of public health has been rising in importance since the 1980s. Economic studies can show, for example, where limited public resources might best be spent to save lives or cause the greatest increase in quality of life.Academic resources
- American Journal of Public Health
- Annual Review of Public Health, ISSN: 15452093 (electronic) 0163-7525 (paper), Annual Reviews
- Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science, ISSN 1538-7135, Mary Ann Lieber
- International Journal of Prisoner Health, ISSN: 1744-9219 (electronic) 1744-9200 (paper), Taylor & Francis
- Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, ISSN: 1078-4659, Lippincott William & Wilkins
- Journal of Urban Health, ISSN: 1468-2869 (electronic) 1099-3460 (paper) , Springer
- Public Health Nutrition, ISSN: 1475-2727 (electronic) 1368-9800 (paper), Cambridge
- Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, ISSN: 1651-1905 (electronic) 1403-4948 (paper), Informa Healthcare
- The Journal of Infectious Diseases, ISSN: 0022-1899, The University of Chicago Press
- The European Journal of Public Health, ISSN: 1464-360X (electronic) 1101-1262 (paper), Oxford University Press
See also
References
- WHO Definition of Health Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization as adopted by the International Health Conference, 1946
- Control of Communicable Diseases Manual edited by James B. Chin, APHA, 2000
- Encyclopedia of public health edited by Lester Breslow, Macmillan Reference 2002
- edited by Richard Wilkinson and Michael Marmot, WHO, 2003
- CCC. (2006), Public Health Emergency Response Guide for State, Local, and Tribal Public Health Directors. Retrieved April10, 2006, from: http://www.bt.cdc.gov/planning/responseguide.asp
- Department of Homeland Security (2004) National Response Plan. Retrieved April 11, 2006, from http://www.dhs.gov/interweb/assetlibrary/NRPbaseplan.pdf
External links
){kind=small} | The external links in this article or section may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies. Please [ improve this article] by removing excessive or inappropriate external links. Please remove this tag when this is done. This article has been tagged since August 2007. (talk) |
- Public Health and Safety at the Open Directory Project
- Public Health and Safety at the Yahoo! Directory
- Health Affairs
- World Health Organization
- Centers for Disease Control: Public Health Information Network
- Association of State and Territorial Health Officials Organization representing heads of state public health agencies.
- National Association of County and City Health Officials The national organization representing local public health officials; based in Washington, DC.
- Child Health and Nutrition Research Initiative
- Association of Schools of Public Health The organization representing CEPH accredited schools of public health
- What Is Public Health
- Public Health Agency of Canada
- UK Association of Public Health Observatories
- American Public Health Association APHA is the oldest, largest and most diverse organization of public health professionals in the world.
- World Federation of Public Health Associations International, nongovernmental organization bringing health workers throughout the world together for professional exchange, collaboration, and action.
- Public Health Postgraduates Germany e.V.
- Health Action by People India (HAP)
- Public health database: free access ; documentation base ; documents in full text ; collections ; public health thesaurus ; Web sites directory ; diary of conferences ; multilingual glossary ; employment offers
Population health is an approach to health that aims to improve the health of an entire population. One major step in achieving this aim is to reduce health inequities among population groups.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
In 1948, in its constitution, the World Health Organization (WHO) defined health as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity" [1].
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, and headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions. In human beings, "disease" is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes discomfort, dysfunction, distress, social problems, and/or death to the person afflicted, or similar problems
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
pandemic (from Greek παν pan all + δήμος demos people) is an epidemic that spreads through human populations across a large region (for example a continent), or even worldwide.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the health and illness of populations, and serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of public health and preventive medicine.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Biostatistics or biometry is the application of statistics to a wide range of topics in biology. It has particular applications to medicine and to agriculture.
Note on terminology
..... Click the link for more information.
Note on terminology
..... Click the link for more information.
Service can refer to:
..... Click the link for more information.
- Public services, services carried out with the aim of providing a public good
- A penetrant, as defined by a building code
- Service (Systems Architecture), the provision of a discrete business or technology function within a systems environment; i.
..... Click the link for more information.
Environmental health is the branch of public health that is concerned with all aspects of the natural and built environment that may affect human health. Other terms that refer to the discipline of environmental health include environmental public health and environmental health
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Occupational safety and health (OSH) is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. As a secondary effect, OSH may also protect co-workers, family members, employers, customers, suppliers, nearby
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
infectious disease is a clinically evident disease resulting from the presence of pathogenic microbial agents, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular parasites, and aberrant proteins known as prions.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material to produce immunity to a disease. This will prevent or ameliorate the effects of infection by a pathogen. The material administrated can either be live, but weakened forms of pathogens such as bacteria or viruses,
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
condom is a device, usually made of latex, or more recently polyurethane, that is used during sexual intercourse. It is put on a man's erect penis and physically blocks ejaculated semen from entering the body of a sexual partner.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Motto
"In God We Trust" (since 1956)
"E Pluribus Unum" ("From Many, One"; Latin, traditional)
Anthem
..... Click the link for more information.
"In God We Trust" (since 1956)
"E Pluribus Unum" ("From Many, One"; Latin, traditional)
Anthem
..... Click the link for more information.
worldwide view of the subject.
Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page.
A health department is a part of government which focuses on issues related to the general health of the citizenry.Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page.
..... Click the link for more information.
Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, and again in 1912 to just the Public Health Service. The Service continued to expand its public health activities as the nation entered the twentieth century, with the Commissioned Corps leading the way.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services based in unincorporated DeKalb County, Georgia adjacent to the campus of Emory University and east of the city of Atlanta.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Atlanta, Georgia
Downtown Atlanta
Flag
Nickname: Hotlanta,[1] The A-T-L[1]
Location in Fulton and DeKalb counties and the state of Georgia
Coordinates:
..... Click the link for more information.
Downtown Atlanta
Flag
Nickname: Hotlanta,[1] The A-T-L[1]
Location in Fulton and DeKalb counties and the state of Georgia
Coordinates:
..... Click the link for more information.
developed country, or advanced country, is used to categorize countries with developed economies in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors of industry dominate.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
developing country has a relatively low standard of living, an undeveloped industrial base, and a moderate to low Human Development Index (HDI) score. In developing countries, there is low per capita income, widespread poverty, and low capital formation.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
United States dollar
dólar estadounidense (Spanish)
dólar amerikanu (Tetum)
dólar americano
..... Click the link for more information.
dólar estadounidense (Spanish)
dólar amerikanu (Tetum)
dólar americano
..... Click the link for more information.
United States of America
This article is part of the series:
Politics and government of
the United States
Federal government
Constitution
Taxation
President Vice President
Cabinet
Congress
Senate
..... Click the link for more information.
This article is part of the series:
Politics and government of
the United States
Federal government
Constitution
Taxation
President Vice President
Cabinet
Congress
Senate
..... Click the link for more information.
non-governmental organization (NGO) is a legally constituted organization created by private persons or organizations with no participation or representation of any government.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
worldwide view.
The Master of Public Health (MPH) is a professional master's degree awarded for studies in areas related to public health. In the United States the Council on Education for Public Health (CEPH) accredit schools of public health through a
..... Click the link for more information.
The Doctor of Public Health (DrPH) is an advanced professional degree for those who intend to pursue or advance a professional practice career in public health and for leaders and future leaders in public health practice.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
worldwide view of the subject.
Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page.
Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page.
- "Ph.D." redirects here, for other uses see Ph.D. (disambiguation).
Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated Ph.D.
..... Click the link for more information.
D.Sc., Sc.D., S.D., or Dr.Sc. are common abbreviations for the Latin Scientiae Doctor, meaning Doctor of Science.
..... Click the link for more information.
North America
In the United States, the Doctor of Science is a doctoral degree equivalent to the Ph.D.. The first North American Sc.D...... Click the link for more information.
Water is a common chemical substance that is essential to all known forms of life.[1] In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form or state, but the substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state, water vapor.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal of waste materials, usually ones produced by human activity, in an effort to reduce their effect on human health or local aesthetics or amenity.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
In epidemiology, a vector is an organism that does not cause disease itself but which spreads infection by conveying pathogens from one host to another.
A classic example is the anopheles mosquito which acts as a vector for the disease malaria by transmitting the malarial
..... Click the link for more information.
A classic example is the anopheles mosquito which acts as a vector for the disease malaria by transmitting the malarial
..... Click the link for more information.
This article is copied from an article on Wikipedia.org - the free encyclopedia created and edited by online user community. The text was not checked or edited by anyone on our staff. Although the vast majority of the wikipedia encyclopedia articles provide accurate and timely information please do not assume the accuracy of any particular article. This article is distributed under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License.
Herod_Archelaus
