Information about Oracle Database
Oracle Database (commonly referred to as Oracle RDBMS or simply as Oracle), a relational database management system (RDBMS) software product released by Oracle Corporation, has become a major feature of database computing.
Larry Ellison and his friends and former co-workers Bob Miner and Ed Oates started the consultancy Software Development Laboratories (SDL) in 1977. SDL developed the original version of the Oracle software. The name Oracle comes from the code-name of a CIA-funded project Ellison had worked on while previously employed by Ampex.
Many widespread computing platforms have come to use the Oracle database software extensively.
Users of Oracle databases refer to the server-side memory-structure as the SGA (System Global Area). The SGA typically holds cache information such as data-buffers, SQL commands and user information. In addition to storage, the database consists of online redo logs (which hold transactional history). Processes can in turn archive the online redo logs into archive logs (offline redo logs), which provide the basis (if necessary) for data recovery and for some forms of data replication.
The Oracle RDBMS stores data logically in the form of tablespaces and physically in the form of data files. Tablespaces can contain various types of memory segments; for example, Data Segments, Index Segments etc. Segments in turn comprise one or more extents. Extents comprise groups of contiguous data blocks. Data blocks form the basic units of data storage. At the physical level, data-files comprise one or more data blocks, where the block size can vary between data-files.
Oracle database management keeps track of its computer data storage with the help of information stored in the
If the Oracle database administrator has instituted Oracle RAC (Real Application Clusters), then multiple instances, usually on different servers, attach to a central storage array. This scenario offers numerous advantages, most importantly performance, scalability and redundancy. However, support becomes more complex, and many sites do not use RAC. In version 10g, grid computing has introduced shared resources where an instance can use (for example) CPU resources from another node (computer) in the grid.
The Oracle DBMS can store and execute stored procedures and functions within itself. PL/SQL (Oracle Corporation's proprietary procedural extension to SQL), or the object-oriented language Java can invoke such code objects and/or provide the programming structures for writing them.
Most Oracle database installations traditionally come with a default schema called
The scott schema has fallen out of favor as it uses so few of the features of a modern release of oracle. Most recent examples reference the default hr or oe schema.
Other default schemas include:
Each Oracle instance allocates itself an SGA when it starts and de-allocates it at shut-down time. The information in the SGA consists of the following elements, each of which has a fixed size, established at instance startup:
If multiple applications issue the same SQL statement, each application can access the shared SQL area: this reduces the amount of memory needed and reduces the processing-time used for parsing and execution planning.
Oracle stores information here about the logical and physical structure of the database. The data dictionary contains information such as the following:
The size and content of the PGA depends on the Oracle-server options installed. This area consists of the following components:
The version numbering syntax within each release follows the pattern: major.maintenance.application-server.component-specific.platform-specific.
For example, "10.2.0.1 for 64-bit Solaris" means: 10th major version of Oracle, maintenance level 2, Oracle Application Server (OracleAS) 0, level 1 for Solaris 64-bit.
The Oracle Administrator's Guide offers further information on Oracle release numbers. Oracle Corporation provides a table showing the latest patchset release by major release, operating system, and hardware architecture.
As of October 2006, Oracle Corporation supported the following operating systems and hardware platforms for Oracle Database 10g:
Development of applications commonly takes place in Java (using Oracle JDeveloper) or through PL/SQL (using, for example, Oracle Forms and Oracle Reports). Oracle Corporation has started a drive toward 'wizard'-driven environments with a view to enabling non-programmers to produce simple data-driven applications.
Oracle SQL Developer, a free graphical tool for database development, allows developers to browse database objects, run SQL statements and SQL scripts, and edit and debug PL/SQL statements. It incorporates standard and customized reporting.
A list of some of the binaries and scripts supplied by Oracle Corporation to operate with/alongside Oracle databases and associated software appears on the Oracle executables web-page.
The Oracle RDBMS has had a reputation among novice users as difficult to install on Linux systems. Oracle Corporation has packaged recent versions for several popular Linux distributions in an attempt to minimize installation challenges beyond the level of technical expertise required to install a database server.
Increasingly, the Oracle database products compete against open-source relational database systems, particularly PostgreSQL, Firebird, and MySQL. Oracle acquired Innobase, supplier of the InnoDB codebase to MySQL, in part to compete better in the open source market. Database products developed on the basis of the open-source model generally cost significantly less to acquire than Oracle systems. EnterpriseDB, based on PostgreSQL, has recently made inroads by proclaiming that its product delivers Oracle compatibility features at a much lower price.
Recently competition with SAP AG software has occasioned litigation from Oracle Corporation.
As of March 2006, the "Enterprise Edition" of the Oracle database costs the most per machine-processor among Oracle database engines. Standard Edition comes cheaper: it can run on up to 4 processors but has fewer features than Enterprise Edition — it lacks proper parallelization , etc; but remains quite suitable for running medium-sized applications). Standard ONE edition sells even more cheaply, but remains limited to 2 CPUs. Standard Edition ONE sells on a per-seat basis with a 5-user minimum. Oracle Corporation usually sells the licenses with an extra 22% cost for support and upgrades (access to MetaLink - Oracle Corporation's support site) which customers need to renew annually.
Oracle Express Edition (Oracle XE), an addition to the Oracle database product family (beta version released in 2005, production version released in February 2006), offers a free version of the Oracle RDBMS, but one limited to 4 GB of user data and to 1 GB of RAM. XE will use no more than one CPU and lacks an internal JVM.
As computers running Oracle often have eight or more processors, the software price can rise into the hundreds of thousands of dollars. The total cost of ownership exceeds this, as Oracle databases usually require experienced and trained database administrators to do the set-up properly. Because of the product's large installed base and available training courses, Oracle specialists in some areas have become a more abundant resource than those for more exotic databases. Oracle frequently provides special training offers for database-administrators.
On Linux, Oracle's certified configurations include mostly commercial Linux distributions (RedHat Enterprise Linux 3 and 4, SuSE SLES8 and 9, Asianux) which can cost in a range from a few hundred to a few thousand USD per year (depending on processor-architecture and the support-package purchased). One can avoid paying for those distros by using free alternatives such as any Red Hat Enterprise Linux clones (such as CentOS or White Box Linux). Oracle also runs reliably on unsupported distributions.[5]
Larry Ellison and his friends and former co-workers Bob Miner and Ed Oates started the consultancy Software Development Laboratories (SDL) in 1977. SDL developed the original version of the Oracle software. The name Oracle comes from the code-name of a CIA-funded project Ellison had worked on while previously employed by Ampex.
Many widespread computing platforms have come to use the Oracle database software extensively.
Physical and logical structuring
An Oracle database system comprises at least one instance of the application, along with data storage. An instance comprises a set of operating-system processes and memory-structures that interact with the storage. Typical processes include PMON (the process monitor) and SMON (the system monitor).Users of Oracle databases refer to the server-side memory-structure as the SGA (System Global Area). The SGA typically holds cache information such as data-buffers, SQL commands and user information. In addition to storage, the database consists of online redo logs (which hold transactional history). Processes can in turn archive the online redo logs into archive logs (offline redo logs), which provide the basis (if necessary) for data recovery and for some forms of data replication.
The Oracle RDBMS stores data logically in the form of tablespaces and physically in the form of data files. Tablespaces can contain various types of memory segments; for example, Data Segments, Index Segments etc. Segments in turn comprise one or more extents. Extents comprise groups of contiguous data blocks. Data blocks form the basic units of data storage. At the physical level, data-files comprise one or more data blocks, where the block size can vary between data-files.
Oracle database management keeps track of its computer data storage with the help of information stored in the
SYSTEM tablespace. The SYSTEM tablespace contains the data dictionary — and often (by default) indexes and clusters. (A data dictionary consists of a special collection of tables that contains information about all user-objects in the database). Since version 8i, the Oracle RDBMS also supports "locally managed" tablespaces which can store space management information in bitmaps in their own headers rather than in the SYSTEM tablespace (as happens with the default "dictionary-managed" tablespaces).
If the Oracle database administrator has instituted Oracle RAC (Real Application Clusters), then multiple instances, usually on different servers, attach to a central storage array. This scenario offers numerous advantages, most importantly performance, scalability and redundancy. However, support becomes more complex, and many sites do not use RAC. In version 10g, grid computing has introduced shared resources where an instance can use (for example) CPU resources from another node (computer) in the grid.
The Oracle DBMS can store and execute stored procedures and functions within itself. PL/SQL (Oracle Corporation's proprietary procedural extension to SQL), or the object-oriented language Java can invoke such code objects and/or provide the programming structures for writing them.
Schemas
Oracle database conventions refer to defined groups of ownership (generally associated with a "username") as schemas.Most Oracle database installations traditionally come with a default schema called
SCOTT. After the installation process has set up the sample tables, the user can log into the database with the username scott and the password tiger. (The name of the SCOTT schema originated with Bruce Scott, one of the first employees at Oracle (then Software Development Laboratories), who had a cat named Tiger.)
The scott schema has fallen out of favor as it uses so few of the features of a modern release of oracle. Most recent examples reference the default hr or oe schema.
Other default schemas include:
SYS(essential core database structures and utilities)SYSTEM(additional core database structures and utilities, and privileged account)OUTLN(utilized to store metadata for stored outlines for query optimizer plan stability.BI,IX,HR,OE,PM, andSH(expanded sample schemas containing more data and structures than the olderSCOTTschema)
Tablespaces
Default tablespaces include:SYSTEM(essential core database structures and utilities)SYSAUX(extra/extended data to supplement theSYSTEMschema)TEMP(temporary tablespace)UNDOTBS1(undo tablespace)USERS(default users tablespace created by the Database Configuration Assistant - but replaceable by the DBA)
Memory architecture
System Global Area
Each Oracle instance uses a System Global Area or SGA — a shared-memory area — to store its data and control information.Each Oracle instance allocates itself an SGA when it starts and de-allocates it at shut-down time. The information in the SGA consists of the following elements, each of which has a fixed size, established at instance startup:
- the database buffer cache: this stores the most recently-used data blocks. These blocks can contain modified data not yet written to disk (sometimes known as "dirty blocks"), unmodified blocks, or blocks written to disk since modification (sometimes known as clean blocks). Because the buffer cache keeps blocks based on a most-recently-used algorithm, the most active buffers stay in memory to reduce I/O and to improve performance.
- the redo log buffer: this stores redo entries — a log of changes made to the database. The instance writes redo log buffers to the redo log as quickly and efficiently as possible. The redo log aids in instance recovery in the event of a system failure.
- the shared pool: this area of the SGA stores shared-memory structures such as shared SQL areas in the library cache and internal information in the data dictionary. An insufficient amount of memory allocated to the shared pool can cause performance degradation.
Library cache
The library cache stores shared SQL, caching the parse tree and the execution plan for every unique SQL statement.If multiple applications issue the same SQL statement, each application can access the shared SQL area: this reduces the amount of memory needed and reduces the processing-time used for parsing and execution planning.
Data dictionary cache
The data dictionary comprises a set of tables and views that map the structure of the database.Oracle stores information here about the logical and physical structure of the database. The data dictionary contains information such as the following:
- User information, such as user privileges
- Integrity constraints defined for tables in the database
- Names and datatypes of all columns in database tables
- Information on space allocated and used for schema objects
Program Global Area
The Program Global Area or PGA memory area contains data and control information for the Oracle server processes.The size and content of the PGA depends on the Oracle-server options installed. This area consists of the following components:
- stack-space: the memory that holds the session's variables, arrays, and so on.
- session-information: unless using the multithreaded server, the instance stores its session information in the PGA. (In a multithreaded server, the session information goes in the SGA.)
- private SQL-area: an area in the PGA holding information such as bind-variables and runtime buffers.
- sorting area: an area in the PGA holding information on sorts, hash-joins, etc.
Process architecture
The Oracle RDBMS typically relies on a group of processes running simultaneously in the background and interacting to further and monitor database operations. Such processes (and their standard abbreviations) can include:[1]- Archiver processes (ARCn)
- Checkpoint process (CKPT)
- Database writer processes (DBWn)
- Dispatcher Processes (Dnnn): multiplex server-processes on behalf of users
- Internal process (MMAN): used for internal database tasks
- Job-queue processes (CJQn)
- Log-writer process (LGWR)
- Logical standby coordinator process (LSP0): controls Data Guard log-application
- Media-recovery process (MRP): detached recovery-server process
- Memory-monitor process (MMON)
- Memory Monitor Light process (MMNL): gathers and stores Automatic Workload Repository (AWR) data
- Process-monitor process (PMON)
- Process-spawner (PSP0): spawns Oracle processes
- Queue-monitor processes (QMNn)
- Recoverer process (RECO)
- Remote file-server process (RFS)
- Shared server processes (Snnn): serve client-requests
- System monitor process (SMON)
History
Corporate/technical timeline
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- 1979: Larry Ellison and friends founded Software Development Laboratories.
- 1979: SDL changed its company-name to "Relational Software, Inc." (RSI) and introduced its product Oracle V2 as an early commercially-available relational database system. The version did not support transactions, but implemented the basic SQL functionality of queries and joins. (RSI never released a version 1 - instead calling the first version version 2 as a marketing gimmick.)
- 1983: RSI in its turn changed its name, becoming known as "Oracle Corporation", to align itself more closely with its flagship-product. The company released Oracle version 3, which it had re-written using the C programming language and which supported
COMMITandROLLBACKfunctionality for transactions. Version 3 extended platform support from the existing Digital VAX/VMS systems to include Unix environments. - 1984: Oracle Corporation released Oracle version 4, which supported read-consistency.
- 1985: the Oracle RDBMS began supporting the client-server model, with networks becoming more widely available in the mid-1980s. Oracle version 5.0 supported distributed queries.
- 1989: Oracle Corporation entered the application products market and developed its ERP product, Oracle E-Business Suite, based on the Oracle relational database. Oracle RDBMS version 6 came out with support for PL/SQL embedded within Oracle Forms v3 (version 6 could not store PL/SQL in the database proper), row-level locking and hot backups.
- 1992: Oracle version 7 appeared with support for referential integrity, stored procedures and triggers.
- 1997: Oracle Corporation released version 8, which supported object-oriented development and multimedia applications.
- 1999: The release of Oracle8i aimed to provide a database inter-operating better with the Internet (the i in the name stands for "Internet"). The Oracle 8i database incorporated a native Java virtual machine (Oracle JVM).
- 2001: Oracle9i was released with 400 new features, including the ability to read and write XML documents. 9i also provided an option for Oracle RAC, or "Real Application Clusters", a computer-cluster database, as a replacement for the Oracle Parallel Server (OPS) option.
- 2003: Oracle Corporation released Oracle Database 10g. (The g stands for "grid"; emphasizing a marketing thrust of presenting 10g as "grid-computing ready".)
- 2005: Oracle Database 10.2.0.1 — also known as Oracle Database 10g Release 2 (10gR2) — appeared.
- 2007: Oracle Corporation released Oracle Database 11g for the Linux operating system.
Version numbering
Oracle products have historically followed their own release-numbering and naming conventions. With the Oracle RDBMS 10g release, Oracle Corporation started standardizing all current versions of its major products using the "10g" label, although some sources continued to refer to Oracle Applications Release 11i as Oracle 11i. Major database-related products and some of their versions include:- Oracle Application Server 10g (also known as "Oracle AS 10g"): a middleware product;
- Oracle Applications Release 11i (aka Oracle e-Business Suite, Oracle Financials or Oracle 11i): a suite of business applications;
- Oracle Developer Suite 10g (9.0.4);
- Oracle JDeveloper 10g: a Java integrated development environment;
- Oracle7: 7.0.16 — 7.3.4
- Oracle8 Database: 8.0.3 — 8.0.6
- Oracle8i Database Release 1: 8.1.5.0 — 8.1.5.1
- Oracle8i Database Release 2: 8.1.6.0 — 8.1.6.3
- Oracle8i Database Release 3: 8.1.7.0 — 8.1.7.4
- Oracle9i Database Release 1: 9.0.1.0 — 9.0.1.5 (Latest current patchset as of December 2003)
- Oracle9i Database Release 2: 9.2.0.1 — 9.2.0.8 (Latest current patchset as of April 2007)
- Oracle Database 10g Release 1: 10.1.0.2 — 10.1.0.5 (Latest current patchset as of February 2006)
- Oracle Database 10g Release 2: 10.2.0.1 — 10.2.0.3 (Latest current patchset as of November 2006)
- Oracle Database 11g Release 1: 11.1.0.6 — no patchset available as of October 2007)
The version numbering syntax within each release follows the pattern: major.maintenance.application-server.component-specific.platform-specific.
For example, "10.2.0.1 for 64-bit Solaris" means: 10th major version of Oracle, maintenance level 2, Oracle Application Server (OracleAS) 0, level 1 for Solaris 64-bit.
The Oracle Administrator's Guide offers further information on Oracle release numbers. Oracle Corporation provides a table showing the latest patchset release by major release, operating system, and hardware architecture.
List of claimed firsts
Oracle Corporation claims to have provided:- the first commercially-available SQL-based database (1979)
- the first database to support symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) (1983)
- the first distributed database (1986)
- the first database product tested to comply with the ANSI SQL standard (1993)
- the first 64-bit database (1995)
- the first web database (1997)
- the first database to incorporate a native JRE (1998)
- the first commercial RDBMS to become available on Linux (1998)[2]
- the first database to support XML (1999)
Editions
Over and above the different versions of the Oracle database management software, Oracle Corporation subdivides its product into varying "editions" - apparently for marketing and license-tracking reasons.- Standard Edition (SE) contains base database functionality. Oracle Corporation licenses this product on the basis of users or of processors, typically for servers running from one to four CPUs. If the number of CPUs exceeds 4 CPUs, the user must convert to an Enterprise license. SE has no memory limits, and can utilize clustering with Oracle RAC at no additional charge.
- Enterprise Edition (EE) includes more features than the 'Standard Edition', especially in the areas of performance and security. Oracle Corporation licenses this product on the basis of users or of processors, typically for servers running 4 or more CPUs. EE has no memory limits, and can utilize clustering using Oracle RAC software.
- Standard Edition One, introduced with Oracle 10g, has some additional feature-restrictions. Oracle Corporation markets it for use on systems with one or two CPUs. It has no memory limitations.
- Express Edition ('Oracle Database XE'), introduced in 2005, offers Oracle 10g free to distribute on Windows and Linux platforms (with a footprint of only 150 MB and restricted to the use of a single CPU, a maximum of 4 GB of user data and 1 GB of memory). Support for this version comes exclusively through on-line forums and not through Oracle support.
- Oracle Personal Edition provides the functionality of the "high end" Enterprise Edition but marketed to (and licensed for) single-user developers working on personal workstations.
- Oracle Database Lite, intended to run on mobile devices. The database, partially located on the mobile device, can synchronize with a server-based installation.
Host platforms
Prior to releasing Oracle9i, Oracle Corporation ported the database engine to a wide variety of platforms. More recently, Oracle Corporation has consolidated on a smaller range of operating system platforms.As of October 2006, Oracle Corporation supported the following operating systems and hardware platforms for Oracle Database 10g:
- Apple Mac OS X Server: PowerPC
- HP HP-UX: PA-RISC, Itanium
- HP Tru64 UNIX: Alpha
- HP OpenVMS: Alpha, Itanium
- IBM AIX5L: IBM POWER
- IBM z/OS: zSeries
- Linux: x86, x86-64, PowerPC, zSeries, Itanium
- Microsoft Windows: x86, x86-64, Itanium
- Sun Solaris: SPARC, x86, x86-64
Related software
For links to some of Oracle Corporation's software which integrates with Oracle databases, see the and the pages.Database options
Oracle Corporation refers to some extensions to the core functionality of the Oracle database as "database options". As of 2006 such options include:- Advanced Security
- Content database
- Database Vault
- Data Mining (ODM)
- Label Security
- Management Packs (various)
- Oracle Answers
- Oracle OLAP
- Partitioning
- Real Application Clusters (RAC)
- Records database
- Oracle Spatial
- Oracle Warehouse Builder (in various forms and sub-options)
Suites
In addition to its RDBMS, Oracle Corporation has released several related suites of tools and applications relating to implementations of Oracle databases. For example:- Oracle Application Server, a J2EE-based application server, aids in developing and deploying applications which utilise Internet technologies and a browser.
- Oracle Collaboration Suite contains messaging, groupware and collaboration applications.
- Oracle Developer Suite contains software development tools, including JDeveloper.
- Oracle E-Business Suite collects together applications for enterprise resource planning (including Oracle Financials), customer relationship management and human resources management (Oracle HR).
- Oracle Enterprise Manager (OEM) used by database administrators (DBAs) to manage the DBMS, and recently in version 10g, a web-based rewrite of OEM called "Oracle Enterprise Manager Database Control". Oracle Corporation has dubbed the super Enterprise Manager used to manage a grid of multiple DBMS and Application Servers as "Oracle Enterprise Manager Grid Control".
Database features
Apart from the clearly-defined database options, Oracle databases may include many semi-autonomous software sub-systems, which Oracle Corporation sometimes refers to as features. Such features may include (for example):- Automatic Workload Repository (AWR), providing monitoring services to Oracle database installations from Oracle version 10. Prior to the release of Oracle version 10, the Statspack facility provided similar functionality.
- Data Aggregation and Consolidation
- Data Guard for high availability
- Data Pump utilities, which aid in importing and exporting data and metadata between databases.[3]
- Flashback for selective data recovery and reconstruction
- iSQL*Plus, a web-browser-based interface to Oracle database DML
- Oracle-managed files (OMF) -- a feature allowing automated naming, creation and deletion of datafiles at the operating system level.
- Recovery Manager (rman) for database backup, restoration and recovery
- SQL*Plus, a CLI-based program that allows users to interact with Oracle database(s) via SQL and PL/SQL commands.
Standalone tools
Various tools address specific environments or specific market requirements.Development of applications commonly takes place in Java (using Oracle JDeveloper) or through PL/SQL (using, for example, Oracle Forms and Oracle Reports). Oracle Corporation has started a drive toward 'wizard'-driven environments with a view to enabling non-programmers to produce simple data-driven applications.
Oracle SQL Developer, a free graphical tool for database development, allows developers to browse database objects, run SQL statements and SQL scripts, and edit and debug PL/SQL statements. It incorporates standard and customized reporting.
A list of some of the binaries and scripts supplied by Oracle Corporation to operate with/alongside Oracle databases and associated software appears on the Oracle executables web-page.
Database-related guidelines
Oracle Corporation also endorses certain practices and conventions as enhancing the use of its database products. These include:- Oracle Maximum Availability Architecture (MAA), guidelines on developing high-availability systems
- Optimal Flexible Architecture (OFA), blueprints for mapping Oracle-database objects to file-systems
Other databases marketed by Oracle Corporation
- TimesTen, a memory-resident database that has the ability to cache transactions and synchronize data with a centralized Oracle database server. It functions as a real-time infrastructure software product designed for low latency, high-volume data, event and transaction management.
- BerkeleyDB, a simple, high-performance, embedded database
Using Oracle Database software
Users of Oracle databases may access the online documentation, the Oracle Technology Network site, and the comp.databases.oracle Usenet discussion group. The Oracle Technet site offers downloads of full-featured evaluation software. Users who have Oracle support contracts should turn to Oracle's Metalink web site (password required). Users can also check the Oracle FAQ site before posting questions to forums, mailing lists, etc. They can also log on to [1] to post questions to and get answers from Tom Kyte, a Vice-President of Oracle Corporation and the author of several Oracle books including Expert One-On-One Oracle (ISBN 1-59059-525-4).The Oracle RDBMS has had a reputation among novice users as difficult to install on Linux systems. Oracle Corporation has packaged recent versions for several popular Linux distributions in an attempt to minimize installation challenges beyond the level of technical expertise required to install a database server.
Oracle Database in the market
Competition
In the market for relational databases, Oracle competes against commercial products such as IBM's DB2 UDB and Microsoft SQL Server. Oracle and IBM tend to battle for the mid-range market (especially on UNIX and Linux platforms), while Microsoft tends to compete in the low-end market (on Microsoft Windows platforms). However, since they share many of the same customers, Oracle and IBM tend to support each other's products in many middleware and application categories (for example, WebSphere, PeopleSoft, and Siebel Systems CRM), and IBM's hardware divisions work closely with Oracle on performance-optimizing server-technologies (for example, Linux on zSeries). The two companies have a relationship perhaps best described as "coopetition". Niche commercial competitors include Teradata (in data warehousing and business intelligence), Software AG's Adabas, Sybase, and IBM's Informix, among many others.Increasingly, the Oracle database products compete against open-source relational database systems, particularly PostgreSQL, Firebird, and MySQL. Oracle acquired Innobase, supplier of the InnoDB codebase to MySQL, in part to compete better in the open source market. Database products developed on the basis of the open-source model generally cost significantly less to acquire than Oracle systems. EnterpriseDB, based on PostgreSQL, has recently made inroads by proclaiming that its product delivers Oracle compatibility features at a much lower price.
Recently competition with SAP AG software has occasioned litigation from Oracle Corporation.
Pricing
Oracle Corporation offers term-licensing for all Oracle products. It bases the list price for a term-license on a specific percentage of the perpetual license-price.[4]As of March 2006, the "Enterprise Edition" of the Oracle database costs the most per machine-processor among Oracle database engines. Standard Edition comes cheaper: it can run on up to 4 processors but has fewer features than Enterprise Edition — it lacks proper parallelization , etc; but remains quite suitable for running medium-sized applications). Standard ONE edition sells even more cheaply, but remains limited to 2 CPUs. Standard Edition ONE sells on a per-seat basis with a 5-user minimum. Oracle Corporation usually sells the licenses with an extra 22% cost for support and upgrades (access to MetaLink - Oracle Corporation's support site) which customers need to renew annually.
Oracle Express Edition (Oracle XE), an addition to the Oracle database product family (beta version released in 2005, production version released in February 2006), offers a free version of the Oracle RDBMS, but one limited to 4 GB of user data and to 1 GB of RAM. XE will use no more than one CPU and lacks an internal JVM.
As computers running Oracle often have eight or more processors, the software price can rise into the hundreds of thousands of dollars. The total cost of ownership exceeds this, as Oracle databases usually require experienced and trained database administrators to do the set-up properly. Because of the product's large installed base and available training courses, Oracle specialists in some areas have become a more abundant resource than those for more exotic databases. Oracle frequently provides special training offers for database-administrators.
On Linux, Oracle's certified configurations include mostly commercial Linux distributions (RedHat Enterprise Linux 3 and 4, SuSE SLES8 and 9, Asianux) which can cost in a range from a few hundred to a few thousand USD per year (depending on processor-architecture and the support-package purchased). One can avoid paying for those distros by using free alternatives such as any Red Hat Enterprise Linux clones (such as CentOS or White Box Linux). Oracle also runs reliably on unsupported distributions.[5]
See also
- List of relational database management systems
- List of object-relational database management systems
- Comparison of relational database management systems
- Comparison of object-relational database management systems
- Oracle Rdb for OpenVMS
- List of ERP software packages
- Run Book Automation
References
1. ^ Oracle Process architecture concepts
2. ^ [2]
3. ^ [3]
4. ^ See the published price-list.
5. ^ [4]
2. ^ [2]
3. ^ [3]
4. ^ See the published price-list.
5. ^ [4]
External links
- Oracle Database, a view provided by Oracle Corporation
- On-line documentation
- On-line demos
- Metalink, Oracle's online support site - requires a password
- Ask Tom - Oracle-related questions addressed by Thomas Kyte
- OTN
Topics in database management systems (DBMS)
| |
|---|---|
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Concepts Database Database models Database storage Relational model Distributed DBMS ACID Null Relational database Relational algebra Relational calculus Database normalization Referential integrity Relational DBMS Primary key, Foreign key, Surrogate key, Superkey, Candidate key | |
|
Objects Trigger View Table Cursor Log Transaction Index Stored procedure Partition |
Topics in SQL Select Insert Update Merge Delete Join Union Create Drop Begin work Commit Rollback Truncate Alter |
| Implementations of database management systems | |
|
Types of implementations Relational Flat file Deductive Dimensional Hierarchical Object oriented Object relational Temporal XML data stores | |
|
Database products Object-oriented (comparison) Relational (comparison) |
Components Query language Query optimizer Query plan ODBC JDBC |
A relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database management system (DBMS) that is based on the relational model as introduced by E. F. Codd. Relational databases are the most common kind of database in use today (assuming one does not count a file system as a database).
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Oracle Corporation
Public (NASDAQ: ORCL )
Founded California, USA (1977)[1]
Headquarters Redwood Shores, California, USA
Key people Lawrence (Larry) J. Ellison, CEO
Jeffrey O. Henley, Chairman
Safra A.
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Public (NASDAQ: ORCL )
Founded California, USA (1977)[1]
Headquarters Redwood Shores, California, USA
Key people Lawrence (Larry) J. Ellison, CEO
Jeffrey O. Henley, Chairman
Safra A.
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database is a structured collection of records or data that is stored in a computer system so that a computer program or person using a query language can consult it to answer queries. The records retrieved in answer to queries are information that can be used to make decisions.
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computing is synonymous with counting and calculating. Originally, people that performed these functions were known as computers. Today it refers to a science and technology that deals with the computation and the manipulation of symbols.
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Lawrence Joseph Ellison (born August 17, 1944) is the co-founder and CEO of Oracle Corporation, a major database software company.
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Early life
Ellison was born in New York City to Florence Spellman, a 19-year-old unwed Jewish mother...... Click the link for more information.
Bob Miner (1942-1994) co-founded Software Development Labs in August 1977 with Larry Ellison, and Ed Oates. Software Development Labs later became Oracle Corporation.
If Larry Ellison was the brain behind Oracle, Bob Miner was its heart.
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If Larry Ellison was the brain behind Oracle, Bob Miner was its heart.
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Ed Oates (1946-) co-founded Software Development Labs in August 1977 with Larry Ellison, and Bob Miner. Software Development Labs later became Oracle Corporation.
Ed Oates graduated with a BA in mathematics from San Jose State University in 1968, and worked at Singer, the US
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Ed Oates graduated with a BA in mathematics from San Jose State University in 1968, and worked at Singer, the US
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Central Intelligence Agency
Seal of the Central Intelligence Agency
Agency overview
Formed 26 July, 1947
Preceding Agency Central Intelligence Group
Headquarters Langley, Virginia, United States
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Seal of the Central Intelligence Agency
Agency overview
Formed 26 July, 1947
Preceding Agency Central Intelligence Group
Headquarters Langley, Virginia, United States
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AMPEX (NASDAQ: AMPX ) is an American electronics company founded in 1944. The name AMPEX is an acronym, created by its founder, Alexander M. Poniatoff, which stands for Alexander M. Poniatoff Excellence.
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In computing, a process is an instance of a computer program that is being sequentially executed.[1] While a program itself is just a passive collection of instructions, a process is the actual execution of those instructions.
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Computer data storage, computer memory, and often casually storage or memory refer to computer components, devices and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time.
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Computer data storage, computer memory, and often casually storage or memory refer to computer components, devices and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time.
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cache (IPA:/kæʃ/, like "catch" [1]) is a collection of data duplicating original values stored elsewhere or computed earlier, where the original data is expensive to fetch (due to longer access time) or to
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SQL
Paradigm: multi-paradigm
Appeared in: 1974
Designed by: Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce
Developer: IBM
Latest release: SQL:2003/ 2003
Typing discipline: static, strong
Major implementations: Many
SQL
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Paradigm: multi-paradigm
Appeared in: 1974
Designed by: Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce
Developer: IBM
Latest release: SQL:2003/ 2003
Typing discipline: static, strong
Major implementations: Many
SQL
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A database transaction is a unit of interaction with a database management system or similar system that is treated in a coherent and reliable way independent of other transactions.
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archive refers to a collection of historical records, and also refers to the location in which these records are kept.[1]
Archives are made up of records (AKA primary source documents) which have been accumulated over the course of an individual or organization's
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Archives are made up of records (AKA primary source documents) which have been accumulated over the course of an individual or organization's
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Data recovery is the process of salvaging data from damaged, failed, corrupted or inaccessible primary storage media when it cannot be accessed normally. Often the data are being salvaged from storage media formats such as hard disk drive, storage tapes, CDs, DVDs, RAID, and other
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Replication is the process of sharing information so as to ensure consistency between redundant resources, such as software or hardware components, to improve reliability, fault-tolerance, or accessibility.
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Edison cylinder phonograph ca. 1899. The Phonograph cylinder is a storage medium. The phonograph may or may not be considered a storage device.]] A data storage device is a device for recording (storing) information (data).
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A tablespace is a storage location where the actual data underlying database objects can be kept. It is the physical portion of the database used to allocate storage for all DBMS managed segments.
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computer file is a block of arbitrary information, or resource for storing information, which is available to a computer program and is usually based on some kind of durable storage.
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On the Intel x86 architecture, a memory segment is the portion of memory which may be addressed by a single index register without changing a 16-bit segment selector. In real mode or V86 mode, a segment is always 64 kibibytes in size (using 16-bit index registers).
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In computing (specifically data transmission and data storage), block is a sequence of bytes or bits, having a nominal length (a block size). Data thus structured is said to be blocked. The process of putting data into blocks is called blocking.
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Computer data storage, computer memory, and often casually storage or memory refer to computer components, devices and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time.
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A data dictionary is a set of metadata that contains definitions and representations of data elements. Within the context of a DBMS, a data dictionary is a read-only set of tables and views.
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A database index is a data structure that improves the speed of operations in a table. Indexes can be created using one or more columns, providing the basis for both rapid random lookups and efficient ordering of access to records.
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A cluster is a small group or bunch of something.
In science:
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In science:
- Cluster (physics), a small group of atoms or molecules
- In astrophysics:
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table is a set of data elements (values) that is organized using a model of horizontal rows and vertical columns. The columns are identified by name, and the rows are identified by the values appearing in a particular column subset which has been identified as a candidate key.
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In the programming paradigm of object-oriented programming, an object is the individual run-time unit that is used as the basic building block of programs. These objects act on each other, as opposed to a traditional view in which a program may be seen as a collection of functions,
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Header may refer to:
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- Header (film), the movie adapted from the Splatterspunk author Edward Lee's cult classic novella 'Header'
- Header (information technology), supplemental data at the beginning of a data block
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Herod_Archelaus
