Information about Instructional Design
Instructional design is the practice of arranging media (communication technology) and content to help learners and teachers transfer knowledge most effectively. The process consists broadly of determining the current state of learner understanding, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some media-based "intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically tested theories of learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed.
As a field, Instructional Design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioural psychology. However, because it is not a regulated field, and therefore not well understood, the term 'instructional design' has been co-opted by or confused with a variety of other ideologically-based and / or professional fields. Instructional Design, for example, is not Graphic Design although graphic design (from a cognitive perspective) could play an important role in Instructional Design. Preparing instructional text by E. Misanchuk, and publications by James Hartley are useful to informing the distinction between Instructional Design and Graphic Design.
Drawing on the research and theories of B.F. Skinner on operant conditioning, training programs focused on observable behaviors. Tasks were broken down into subtasks, and each subtask treated as a separate learning goal. Training was designed to reward correct performance and remediate incorrect performance. Mastery was assumed to be possible for every learner, given enough repetition and feedback. After the war, the success of the wartime training model was replicated in business and industrial training, and to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom. [1]
In 1955 Benjamin Bloom published an influential taxonomy of what he termed the three domains of learning: Cognitive (what we know or think), Psychomotor (what we do, physically) and Affective (what we feel, or what attitudes we have). These taxonomies still influence the design of instruction. [2]
During the latter half of the 20th century, learning theories began to be influenced by the growth of digital computers.
Many Instructional design theorists began to adopt an "information-processing" approach to the design of instruction. David Merrill for instance developed [Component Display Theory (CDT) [1] ]. Component Display Theory concentrates on the means of presenting instructional materials (presentation techniques)[3]. Later in the 1980s and throughout the 1990s cognitive load theory began to find empirical support for a variety of presentation techniques.[4]
While the media debates of the 1990s focused on the influences of media on learning, cognitive load effects were being documented in several journals. These effects it seems were based on the design of instructional materials, as opposed to the media being used. Finally Mayer [9] asked the Instructional Design community to reassess this media debate, to refocus their attention on what was most important – learning.
By the late 1990s, Sweller and his associates had discovered several learning effects related to cognitive load and the design of instructional materials (e.g. the Split attention effect, redundancy effect, and the worked example effect). Later, other researchers like Richard Mayer began to attribute other learning effects to cognitive load [9]. Mayer and his associates soon developed a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning [10] [11] [12]
In the past decade, Cognitive load theory has begun to be internationally accepted [13] and begun to revolutionize how Instructional Designers view instruction. Recently, Human performance experts have even taken notice of cognitive load and begun to promote this theory base as the Science of Instruction, with Instructional Designers as the practitioners of this field [14]. Finally Clark, Nguyen and Sweller [15] published an important text describing how Instructional Designers can promote efficient learning using evidence based guidelines of Cognitive load theory.
Instructional theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories such as behaviorism, constructivism, social learning and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials.
Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification. The word comes from the Greek τάξις, taxis, 'order' +
..... Click the link for more information.
As a field, Instructional Design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioural psychology. However, because it is not a regulated field, and therefore not well understood, the term 'instructional design' has been co-opted by or confused with a variety of other ideologically-based and / or professional fields. Instructional Design, for example, is not Graphic Design although graphic design (from a cognitive perspective) could play an important role in Instructional Design. Preparing instructional text by E. Misanchuk, and publications by James Hartley are useful to informing the distinction between Instructional Design and Graphic Design.
History
Much of the foundation of the field of instructional design was laid in World War II, when the U.S. military faced the need to rapidly train large numbers of people to perform complex technical tasks, from field-stripping a carbine to navigating across the ocean to building a bomber.Drawing on the research and theories of B.F. Skinner on operant conditioning, training programs focused on observable behaviors. Tasks were broken down into subtasks, and each subtask treated as a separate learning goal. Training was designed to reward correct performance and remediate incorrect performance. Mastery was assumed to be possible for every learner, given enough repetition and feedback. After the war, the success of the wartime training model was replicated in business and industrial training, and to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom. [1]
In 1955 Benjamin Bloom published an influential taxonomy of what he termed the three domains of learning: Cognitive (what we know or think), Psychomotor (what we do, physically) and Affective (what we feel, or what attitudes we have). These taxonomies still influence the design of instruction. [2]
During the latter half of the 20th century, learning theories began to be influenced by the growth of digital computers.
Many Instructional design theorists began to adopt an "information-processing" approach to the design of instruction. David Merrill for instance developed [Component Display Theory (CDT) [1] ]. Component Display Theory concentrates on the means of presenting instructional materials (presentation techniques)[3]. Later in the 1980s and throughout the 1990s cognitive load theory began to find empirical support for a variety of presentation techniques.[4]
Cognitive load theory and the design of instruction
Cognitive load theory developed out of several empirical studies of learners as they interacted with instructional materials [5]. It is emblematic of the historical roots of cognitive psychology in Instructional Design. Sweller and his associates began to measure the effects of working memory load and found that the format of instructional materials has a direct effect on the performance of the learners using those materials [6] [7] [8]While the media debates of the 1990s focused on the influences of media on learning, cognitive load effects were being documented in several journals. These effects it seems were based on the design of instructional materials, as opposed to the media being used. Finally Mayer [9] asked the Instructional Design community to reassess this media debate, to refocus their attention on what was most important – learning.
By the late 1990s, Sweller and his associates had discovered several learning effects related to cognitive load and the design of instructional materials (e.g. the Split attention effect, redundancy effect, and the worked example effect). Later, other researchers like Richard Mayer began to attribute other learning effects to cognitive load [9]. Mayer and his associates soon developed a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning [10] [11] [12]
In the past decade, Cognitive load theory has begun to be internationally accepted [13] and begun to revolutionize how Instructional Designers view instruction. Recently, Human performance experts have even taken notice of cognitive load and begun to promote this theory base as the Science of Instruction, with Instructional Designers as the practitioners of this field [14]. Finally Clark, Nguyen and Sweller [15] published an important text describing how Instructional Designers can promote efficient learning using evidence based guidelines of Cognitive load theory.
Learning Design
The IMS Learning Design [16]specification supports the use of a wide range of pedagogies in online learning. Rather than attempting to capture the specifics of many pedagogies, it does this by providing a generic and flexible language. This language is designed to enable many different pedagogies to be expressed. The approach has the advantage over alternatives in that only one set of learning design and runtime tools then need to be implemented in order to support the desired wide range of pedagogies. The language was originally developed at the Open University of the Netherlands (OUNL), after extensive examination and comparison of a wide range of pedagogical approaches and their associated learning activities, and several iterations of the developing language to obtain a good balance between generality and pedagogic expressiveness.Instructional design models
Perhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is the ADDIE Model. This acronym stands for the 5 phases contained in the model:- Analyze - analyze learner characteristics, task to be learned, etc.
- Design - develop learning objectives, choose an instructional approach
- Develop - create instructional or training materials
- Implement - deliver or distribute the instructional materials
- Evaluate - make sure the materials achieved the desired goals
Instructional theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories such as behaviorism, constructivism, social learning and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials.
Influential researchers and theorists
- Lev Vygotsky - Learning as a social activity - 1930s
- B.F. Skinner - Behaviorism - 1940s
- Benjamin Bloom - Taxonomies of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains - 1955
- R.F. Mager - ABCD model for instructional objectives - 1962
- Jean Piaget - Cognitive development - 1960s
- Seymour Papert - LOGO - 1970s
- Robert M. Gagné - Nine Events of Instruction - 1970s
- Jerome Bruner - Constructivism
- Dick, W. & Carey, L. "The Systematic Design of Instruction" - 1978
- Michael Simonson - Instructional Systems and Design via Distance Education - 1980s
- M. David Merrill and Charles Reigeluth - Elaboration Theory / Component Display Theory / PEAnets - 1980s
- Robert Heinich, Michael Molenda, James Russell - Instructional Media and the new technologies of instruction 3rd ed. - Educational Technology - 1989
- Roger Schank - Constructivist simulations - 1990s
- David Jonassen - Cognitivist problem-solving strategies - 1990s
- Ruth Clark - Theories on instructional design and technical training - 1990s
- Charles Graham and Curtis Bonk - Blended learning - 2000s
See also
Since instructional design deals with creating useful instruction and instructional materials, there are many other areas that are related to the field of instructional design.- assessment
- DACUM
- educational animation
- educational psychology
- educational technology
- e-learning
- electronic portfolio
- evaluation
- instructional technology
- instructional theory
- learning object
- learning science
- m-learning
- online education
- instructional design coordinator
- Storyboarding
- training
- interdisciplinary teaching
- rapid prototyping
- Lesson study
External links
- CSUN Instructional Design and Adult Development Certificate Program
- American Society for Training & Development (ASTD)
- International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI)
- Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT)
- Instructional Design - An informative guide to ID from WideOpenDoors.net
- IMS Global Learning Design - XML Specifications
- (class notes of a student taking an ID course)
- Creating an Instructor Kit (how-to article)
- Semantic Pedagogy
- The instructional technology et distance learning Journal
- Instructional Design Resources from The Learned Man! e-Learning Resource
- Training Within Industry - A proven training methodology developed during WWII makes a comeback
- Writers Gateway - Focusing on Instructional Design and eLearning Strategies with a unique gaming Perspective
- ISD Handbook
- [https://www.firstrespondertraining.gov/rtdc/ First Responder Training]
- Open Here: The art of Instructional designhttp://www.mutr.co.uk/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=1365
References
1. ^ [2]
2. ^ [3]
3. ^ [4]
4. ^ [5]
5. ^ Sweller, J. (1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning". Cognitive Science 12 (1): 257-285.
6. ^ Chandler, P. & Sweller, J.. (1991). "Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction.". Cognition and Instruction 8 (4): 293-332.
7. ^ Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). "The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra". Cognition and Instruction 2 (1): 59-89.
8. ^ Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). "Effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer.". Journal of Educational Psychology 79 (4): 347-362.
9. ^ Mayer, R.E. (1997). "Multimedia Learning: Are We Asking the Right Questions?.". Educational Psychologist 32 (41): 1-19.
10. ^ Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78239-2.
11. ^ Mayer, R.E., Bove,W. Bryman, A. Mars,R. & Tapangco, L. (1996). "When Less Is More: Meaningful Learning From Visual and Verbal Summaries of Science Textbook Lessons.". Journal of Educational Psychology. 88 (1): 64-73.
12. ^ Mayer, R.E., Steinhoff, K., Bower, G. and Mars, R. (1995). "A generative theory of textbook design: Using annotated illustrations to foster meaningful learning of science text.". Educational Technology Research and Development. 43 (1): 31-41.
13. ^ Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. (2004). "Cognitive Load Theory: Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information Structures and Cognitive Architecture". Instructional Science 32: 1–8.
14. ^ Clark, R.C., Mayer, R.E. (2002). e-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-6051-9.
15. ^ Clark, R. C., Nguyen, F., and Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-7728-4.
16. ^ IMS Learning Design webpage
17. ^ Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educational technology.
18. ^ Stolovitch, H.D, & Keeps, E. (1999). Handbook of human performance technology.
2. ^ [3]
3. ^ [4]
4. ^ [5]
5. ^ Sweller, J. (1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning". Cognitive Science 12 (1): 257-285.
6. ^ Chandler, P. & Sweller, J.. (1991). "Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction.". Cognition and Instruction 8 (4): 293-332.
7. ^ Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). "The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra". Cognition and Instruction 2 (1): 59-89.
8. ^ Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). "Effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer.". Journal of Educational Psychology 79 (4): 347-362.
9. ^ Mayer, R.E. (1997). "Multimedia Learning: Are We Asking the Right Questions?.". Educational Psychologist 32 (41): 1-19.
10. ^ Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78239-2.
11. ^ Mayer, R.E., Bove,W. Bryman, A. Mars,R. & Tapangco, L. (1996). "When Less Is More: Meaningful Learning From Visual and Verbal Summaries of Science Textbook Lessons.". Journal of Educational Psychology. 88 (1): 64-73.
12. ^ Mayer, R.E., Steinhoff, K., Bower, G. and Mars, R. (1995). "A generative theory of textbook design: Using annotated illustrations to foster meaningful learning of science text.". Educational Technology Research and Development. 43 (1): 31-41.
13. ^ Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. (2004). "Cognitive Load Theory: Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information Structures and Cognitive Architecture". Instructional Science 32: 1–8.
14. ^ Clark, R.C., Mayer, R.E. (2002). e-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-6051-9.
15. ^ Clark, R. C., Nguyen, F., and Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-7728-4.
16. ^ IMS Learning Design webpage
17. ^ Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educational technology.
18. ^ Stolovitch, H.D, & Keeps, E. (1999). Handbook of human performance technology.
Very broadly defined, communication technology includes the theory, technology, design, and equipment related to the processing and transfer of messages/information. This includes but is not limited to:
..... Click the link for more information.
- Traditional television and radio broadcasting
- Multimedia/new media
..... Click the link for more information.
Allied powers:
Soviet Union
United States
United Kingdom
China
France
...et al. Axis powers:
Germany
Japan
Italy
...et al.
..... Click the link for more information.
Soviet Union
United States
United Kingdom
China
France
...et al. Axis powers:
Germany
Japan
Italy
...et al.
..... Click the link for more information.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990), Ph.D. was a highly influential American psychologist, author, inventor, advocate for social reform [1][2][3][4] and poet.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Benjamin Bloom (b. 21 February, 1913 - d. September 13, 1999) was an American educational psychologist who made significant contributions to the classification of educational objectives and the theory of mastery learning.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
For the science of classifying living things, see .
Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification. The word comes from the Greek τάξις, taxis, 'order' +
..... Click the link for more information.
Cognitive Load is a term (used in Educational psychology and other fields of study) that refers to the load on working memory during problem solving, thinking and reasoning (including perception, memory, language, etc.).
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
John Sweller is an Australian educational psychologist who is best known for formulating an influential theory of cognitive load.
He has a Ph.D. from the University of Adelaide's Department of Psychology — his thesis was titled "
..... Click the link for more information.
He has a Ph.D. from the University of Adelaide's Department of Psychology — his thesis was titled "
..... Click the link for more information.
IMS Learning Design (IMS LD) is a specification for a metalanguage which enables the modelling of learning processes. The specification is maintained by IMS Global Learning Consortium.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
The ADDIE model is the generic process traditionally used by instructional designers and training developers. The five phases—Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation—represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for building effective training and
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Rapid prototyping is the automatic construction of physical objects using solid freeform fabrication. The first techniques for rapid prototyping became available in the late 1980s and were used to produce models and prototype parts.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Behaviorism (also called learning perspective) is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Constructivism is a set of assumptions about the nature of human learning that guide constructivist learning theories and teaching methods of education. Constructivism values developmentally appropriate facilitator-supported learning that is initiated and directed by the learner.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Social learning may refer to:
..... Click the link for more information.
- Observational learning (psychology), learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating behavior observed in ones environment or other people.
..... Click the link for more information.
In psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical approach in understanding the mind, which argues that mental function can be understood by quantitative, positivist and scientific methods, and that such functions can be described as information processing models.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (Russian: Лев Семёнович Выготский) (November 17 (November 5 Old Style), 1896 – June 11, 1934) was a Soviet developmental
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990), Ph.D. was a highly influential American psychologist, author, inventor, advocate for social reform [1][2][3][4] and poet.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Benjamin Bloom (b. 21 February, 1913 - d. September 13, 1999) was an American educational psychologist who made significant contributions to the classification of educational objectives and the theory of mastery learning.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Jean Piaget
Born July 9 1896
Neuchâtel, Switzerland
Died September 16 1980 (aged 84)
Residence Switzerland
..... Click the link for more information.
Born July 9 1896
Neuchâtel, Switzerland
Died September 16 1980 (aged 84)
Residence Switzerland
..... Click the link for more information.
Seymour Papert
Born March 1 1928
Pretoria, South Africa
..... Click the link for more information.
Born March 1 1928
Pretoria, South Africa
..... Click the link for more information.
Robert Mills Gagné (August 21 1916– April 28 2002) was an American educational psychologist best known for his "Conditions of Learning". Gagné pioneered the science of instruction during WWII for the air force with pilot training.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Jerome S. Bruner (b. 1 October, 1915) is an American psychologist who has contributed to cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology and to the general philosophy of education.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Constructivism is a set of assumptions about the nature of human learning that guide constructivist learning theories and teaching methods of education. Constructivism values developmentally appropriate facilitator-supported learning that is initiated and directed by the learner.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Roger Schank (* 1946) is president and CEO of Socratic Arts, and a leading visionary in artificial intelligence.
..... Click the link for more information.
Career
Schank was formerly professor of computer science and psychology at Yale University and director of the Yale Artificial Intelligence Project...... Click the link for more information.
Blended Learning is the combination of multiple approaches to learning. Blended learning can be accomplished through the use of 'blended' virtual and physical resources. A typical example of this would be a combination of technology-based materials and face-to-face sessions used
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs. This article covers educational assessment including the work of institutional researchers, but the term applies to other fields as well including health and finance.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Educational animations are animations produced for the specific purpose of fostering learning.
The popularity of using animations to help learners understand and remember information has greatly increased since the advent of powerful graphics-oriented computers.
..... Click the link for more information.
The popularity of using animations to help learners understand and remember information has greatly increased since the advent of powerful graphics-oriented computers.
..... Click the link for more information.
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Educational technology is a field of study within education. The term Educational technology is often associated with instructional technology or learning technology, but educational technology is a broader term, or field of study encompassing the other two.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
Electronic learning or E-learning is a general term used to refer to computer-enhanced learning. It is used interchangeably in so many contexts that it is critical to be clear what one means when one speaks of 'eLearning'.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
An electronic portfolio, also known as an e-portfolio or digital portfolio, is a collection of electronic evidence assembled and managed by a user, usually on the Web.
..... Click the link for more information.
..... Click the link for more information.
This article is copied from an article on Wikipedia.org - the free encyclopedia created and edited by online user community. The text was not checked or edited by anyone on our staff. Although the vast majority of the wikipedia encyclopedia articles provide accurate and timely information please do not assume the accuracy of any particular article. This article is distributed under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License.
Herod_Archelaus
