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The Christian Church is the universal institution embodying the Christian faith, the religion based on the worship of Jesus of Nazareth as the son of God. The concept as it was known beginning in 30-33 A.D.,expresses the idea that the followers of the religion can all be seen as part of one single group. Although today there is no single political entity recognized by the secular world as the unique Christian Church,^[1]; each of the Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches claims to be the unique church established by Jesus the Messiah. Protestants would hold that the concept is justified by the notion that the Church is ultimately headed by Jesus Christ who acts as the unifying figure for all who claim to follow Him. The phrase "The Church" in its widest sense (as "the Body of Christ") has a similar breadth.

Terminology

Through history there have been various terms that have been used to express the concept of a united Christian Church. This section discusses some of these.

The English word church derives from the Greek κυριακή (kyriake), "Lord's (house)".^[2][3] The term has expanded over time to the allow today's more general meanings.

The Greek/Latin word εκκλησια/ecclesia, literally "assembly" in Greek, is the traditional Roman Catholic/Orthodox term referring to the Christian Church. Most Romance languages use derivations of this word. This Latin word is sometimes used in English as well.

The phrase One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church appears in the Nicene Creed (μίαν, ἁγίαν, καθολικὴν καὶ ἀποστολικὴν Ἐκκλησίαν) and, in part, in the Apostles' Creed ("the holy catholic church", ἁγίαν καθολικὴν ἐκκλησίαν).^[4][5] The phrase is intended to set forth the four marks, or identifying signs, of the Christian Church — unity, holiness, universality, and apostolicity — and is based on the premise that all true Christians form a single united group founded by the apostles.^[6]

The terms orthodox Church and orthodox faith (not to be confused with the modern term "Eastern Orthodox" with a capital 'O') have been used to distinguish what is considered the true Church from groups considered heretical. The term became especially prominent in referring to the doctrine of the Nicene Creed and, in historical contexts, is often still used to distinguish this first "official" doctrine from others.^[7]

The term body of Christ (cf. 1 Cor 12:27), also known as the Bride of Christ, is used to refer to the total community of Christians seen as interdependent in a single entity headed by Jesus Christ.^[8]

The phrase Church Militant and Church Triumphant (Ecclesia Militans, Ecclesia Triumphans) is used to express the concept of a united Church that extends beyond the earthly realm into Heaven.^[9] The term Church Militant comprises all living Christians while Church Triumphant comprises those in Heaven. Within the Roman Catholic Church there is also the concept of Church Suffering, or Church Expectant, comprising those Christians in Purgatory.

The term Communion of Saints expresses the idea of a shared faith which, through prayer, binds all Christians regardless of the physical separation or separation by death. In Roman Catholic theology this would be differentiated from the Church Militant and Church Triumphant alone because it also includes the Church Suffering.^[10]

History

Main article: History of Christianity

The Christian Church originated in Roman Judea in the first century AD, founded on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth believed by all Christians to be the Messiah, or deliverer king, of the Jewish people. The precise start of the Church is considered to be at Pentecost, but it is usually thought of as originating with Jesus' Apostles. According to scripture Jesus commanded the Apostles to spread his teachings to all the world. Although springing out of the first century Jewish faith, from its earliest days some sects of the Church accepted non-Jews without requiring them to adopt Jewish customs (e.g. circumcision), running counter to tradition.^[11][12] Conflict with Jewish religious authorities quickly led to the expulsion of the Christians from the synagogues in Jerusalem^[13], see also Council of Jamnia.

The Church gradually spread through the Roman Empire and outside it gaining major establishments in cities such as Jerusalem, Antioch, and Edessa.^[14][15][16] Christianity became a widely persecuted religion, hated by the Jewish authorities as a heresy, and by the Roman authorities because, like Judaism, its monotheistic teachings were fundamentally foreign to the traditions of the ancient world, as well as a challenge to the imperial cult.^[17] Despite this the Church grew rapidly until finally legalized and then promoted by Emperors Galerius and Constantine in the fourth century. A major controversy as the Church was being formalized was the Arianism vs. Trinitarianism debate which occupied the Church during the fourth century.^[18][19][7] After various Church councils (Nicaea, Tyre, Rimini, Seleucia, Constantinople, etc.), the matter was effectively settled by the Trinitarian Emperor Theodosius I who made Christianity the state religion (some Germanic tribes, though, remained Arian well into the Middle Ages).^[20] This period would begin the long-term persecution of pagans and "heretical" Christians in the Empire and the kingdoms that followed.^[21] See also Christendom.



The Church of the Roman Empire was divided into Patriarchal Sees with five holding particular prominence, one in the West (Rome), and the rest in the East (Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria). The bishops of these five would become the Patriarchs of the Church.^[22] Even after the split of the Roman Empire the Church remained a relatively united institution (excluding Oriental Orthodoxy and some other groups which separated from the rest of the Church earlier). The Church came to be a central and defining institution of the Empire, especially in the East. In particular, Constantinople would come to be seen as the center of the Christian world, owing in great part to its economic and political power.^[23][24]

Once the Western Empire fell to Germanic incursions in the 5th century, the (Roman) Church for centuries became the primary link to Roman civilization for Medieval Western Europe^[25] and an important channel of influence in the West for the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, emperors. While, in the West, Christianity struggled as the so-called orthodox (i.e. Roman) Church competed against the Arian Christian and pagan faiths of the Germanic rulers, the Eastern Romans spread Christianity to the pagan Slavs establishing the Church in what is now Russia and Eastern Europe.^[26] The reign of Charlemagne in Western Europe is particularly noted for bringing the last major Western tribes outside of the Church into communion with Rome, in part through conquest and forced conversion.

Starting in the 7th century the Islamic Caliphates rose and gradually began to conquer larger and larger areas of the Christian world.^[26] Excepting southern Spain and a few smaller areas, Northern and western Europe for centuries escaped largely unscathed by Islamic expansion in great part because Constantinople and its empire acted as a magnet for the onslaught.^[27] The challenge presented by the Muslims would help to solidify the religious identify of eastern Christians even as it gradually weakened the Eastern Empire.^[28] Even in the Muslim World, the Church survived (e.g. the modern Copts, Maronites, and others) albeit at times with great difficulty.^[29][30]



Although there had long been frictions between the Patriarch of Rome (i.e. the Western Pope) and the other patriarchs, Rome's changing allegiance from Constantinople to the Frankish king Charlemagne set the Church on a course towards separation. The political and theological divisions would grow until Rome excommunicated the East in the 11th century, ultimately leading to the division of the Church into the Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern (Eastern Orthodox) Churches.^[26]

As a result of the redevelopment of Western Europe, and the gradual fall of the Eastern Roman Empire to the Arabs and Turks (helped by warfare against Eastern Christians). With the final Fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD the period of the Western Renaissance began in the West, as the result of Eastern scholars bringing ancient manuscripts fleeing the Moslem hordes. Rome came to be seen by the Western Church as Christianity's heartland.^[32] Some Eastern churches even broke with Eastern Orthodoxy and entered into communion with Rome. The changes brought on by the Renaissance eventually led to the Protestant Reformation during which the Protestant Lutheran and Anglican, and the Reformed followers of Calvin, Hus, Zwingli, Melancthon, Knox, and others split from the Roman Catholic Church. Then during the Age of Exploration and the Age of Imperialism, Western Europe spread the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestant and Reformed Churches around the world, especially in the Americas.^[33][34] These developments in turn have led to Christianity's being the largest religion in the world today.^[35]

Related Concepts

Catholicism

Main article: Catholicism

The term catholic is derived from the Greek adjective καθολικός (katholikos), which means "general", "universal".^[36] This term appears in both the Nicene Creed and the Apostle's Creed, statements of faith adhered to by almost all modern denominations. When the word "catholic" or "universal" is applied to the Church, it is generally intended to indicate that the institution is the uniquely legitimate Christian Church intended for all of humanity. In Christian theology the term is often used to imply a calling to spread the faith throughout the whole world and to all ages. It is also thought of as implying that the Church is endowed with all the means of salvation for its members.

Saint Ignatius of Antioch, the earliest known writer to use the phrase "the Catholic Church", excluded from it heterodox groups whose teaching and practice conflicted with those of the bishops of the Catholic Church. In keeping with this idea, many churches/communions see groups that it judges to be in a state of heresy or schism with their church/communion as not part of the catholic Church (e.g. the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches follow this doctrine).

Others have, since the Protestant Reformation, used the word "Catholic" to designate instead adherence to the doctrines and essential practices of the historical institutional Churches, in contrast to those propounded by the Reformers. In this sense indicated in this paragraph, Catholic tends to be written with an upper-case 'C'.

The Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Oriental Orthodox Churches all see themselves as fully "catholic" in all the foregoing senses. Some Anglicans see their Communion as a component part of the Catholic Church, albeit not subject to the Holy See of Rome, and maintain beliefs and practices akin to those of the Roman Catholic Church.

Some Protestant denominations interpret "catholic", especially in its creedal context, as referring to the concept of the eternal church of Christ and the Elect, referenced in the Bible in phrases such as "body of Christ"^[37] and "great cloud of witnesses."^[38] Expressed in the language of traditional Roman Catholicism this Protestant interpretation of the words "one holy, catholic, and Apostolic church" identifies the "one holy, catholic, and Apostolic church" exclusively with the Church Triumphant - i.e. the church that exists "in heaven" or in eternity as opposed to the Church Militant which is the communion of the faithful here on Earth. They view this understanding of "catholic" as necessarily distinct from any concrete expression in an institutional Church. In this last sense, catholic tends to be written with a lower-case 'c'.

Orthodoxy

The term orthodoxy is generally used to distinguish the faith of the "true Church" from other doctrines which disagree (traditionally referred to as heresy). This distinction can be seen as originating with the biblical proscriptions against false prophets. "Orthodoxy" means both "true glory" and "correct teaching" this theological term is explicitly used by Orthodox Christians to refer to themselves -- as a shorthand for "The One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic, Orthodox and Orthoprax, Church of Jesus Christ and His Saints." Of course, Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Reformed believers who disbelieve the claims of the Orthodox Church; refer to her as the "Eastern Orthodox" church.

This concept of "Orthodoxy" began to take on particular significance during the reign of the Roman Emperor Constantine, the first to actively promote the Christian religion. Constantine convened the first Ecumenical Council, the Council of Nicea, which attempted to provide the first universal creed of the Christian faith. The major issue of this and other councils during the fourth century was the christological debate between Arianism and Trinitarianism. Trinitarianism is the official doctrine of the Catholic Church and is strongly associated with the term orthodoxy (although some modern non-Trinitarian churches dispute this usage). Churches that subscribe to the Nicene Creed, the first official Trinitarian creed, are sometimes referred to as orthodox.

Apostolic succession

Main article: Apostolic succession

The doctrine of Apostolic succession asserts that the bishops of the true Church enjoy the favor, or grace, of God as a result of legitimate succession from Jesus' apostles.^[39] Modern bishops, therefore, must be viewed as an unbroken line of leadership from the original apostles. Note that this doctrine is distinct Papal supremacy which grants Roman Catholic Bishop of Rome special privilege in the Roman Catholic Church.

The Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches, Oriental Orthodoxy, and others interpret the adjective "apostolic" as referring not only to the Church's origin from Christ's Apostles and their teaching, but also to the Church's structure around bishops who have succeeded the Apostles by unbroken succession transmitted by episcopal consecration ("laying on of hands"). A modern variant of this interpretation, held by many in the non-trinitarian "Apostolic church movement", including some Pentecostal groups, is that Apostolic refers to the charismatic gift of apostleship, which they claim continues to be granted by the Spirit to the faithful Church today. Reformed Evangelical Christians hold that the Apostolic Church of the Creed corresponds to no one , but is instead the aggregate of all "true" Christians, regardless of denominational allegiance, who hold the faith of the Apostles.^[40][41]

Divisions and controversies

Today the churches that consider themselves to be Christian are numerous with a variety of different doctrines and traditions. There are many controversies between the denominations which persist today.

Definition of the Christian Church

One significant controversy is simply the definition of the Christian or Catholic Church. To some degree this controversy is related to the Nicene Creed, to which virtually all modern denominations subscribe (albeit in somewhat different forms), which specifically references a catholic, or universal, church. The Roman Catholic Church has traditionally regarded itself as the unique Christian Church (hence the name) although in the 20th century this view has softened to some degree.^[42] The Orthodox Church regards itself as the One true Church of Christ. Many other Christian groups take the view that all denominations are part of a global Christian Church which is a body bound by a common faith if not a common administration or tradition. Note that in classical times the term Catholic Church came to be most widely used in reference to the official Roman Imperial Church from which most modern Christian Churches descend directly or indirectly. The term, however, dates back to the Apostles' Creed which predates the official sanction of the Church by the Empire. Like the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox Church and some others have always referred to themselves as the Catholic Church.^[43] Oriental Orthodoxy shares this view, seeing the Churches of the Oriental Orthodox communion as constituting the one true Church. In the West the term Catholic has come to be most commonly associated with the Roman Catholic Church because of its size and influence in the West (although in formal contexts most other churches still reject this naming).

These Churches believe that the term "one" in the Nicene Creed describes and prescribes a visible institutional unity, not only geographically (throughout the world), but also historically (throughout history). They see unity as one of the four marks that the Creed attributes to the genuine Church, and the essence of a mark is that it be visible. A Church whose identity and belief varied from country to country and from age to age would not be "one". In the New Testament, the word "Church" or "assembly" - ἐκκλησία (ekklesia) in the original language - normally refers to believers on earth, and they conclude that the Creed's description "one" must be applicable to the Church on earth and must not be reserved for some eschatological reality. The only exception to the normal New Testament use of the word "ἐκκλησία" is the mention of the "ἐκκλησία of the firstborn who are enrolled in heaven" in Hebrews 12:23; and even there the Christians to whom the letter is addressed are associated with that heavenly Church ("you have come to..."). In line with this passage, the ancient Churches mentioned see the saints too - that is, the holy dead - as part of the one Church and not as ex-members, so that Christians both in the present life and the afterlife form a single Church.

Many Anglicans, Lutherans, Old Catholics, and Independent Catholics view unity as a mark of catholicity, but see the institutional unity of the Catholic Church as manifested in the shared Apostolic Succession of their episcopacies, rather than a shared episcopal hierarchy or rites.

Reformed Christians hold that every person justified by faith in the Gospel committed to the Apostles is a member of "One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church". From this perspective, the real unity and holiness of the whole church established through the Apostles is yet to be revealed; and meanwhile, the extent and peace of the church on earth is imperfectly realized in a visible way.

Apostolic succession

As mentioned in the previous section, another controversy is the concept of apostolic succession, the notion that in order to be legitimate the Church leadership must descend in some fashion from Jesus' apostles. The nature of this requirement is widely debated (some sects arguing whether this is a requirement at all). The oldest concept is that there must be an unbroken succession of leadership connecting the Church to the original apostles and this definition was used by the Church in the Roman Empire as its justification for legitimacy. This justification has continued to be argued by both the Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Churches (as well as the Oriental Orthodox Churches) as their claim of legitimacy. The Roman Catholic Church has traditionally been the most vocal in claiming itself to have unique legitimacy in apostolic succession (based in part on Matthew 16:18^[44]). Most of the Protestant churches, by contrast, argue in some manner that their connection to the original apostles is spiritual and doctrinal and that episcopal continuity is not a necessary requirement.

First church

The right to be considered the first or oldest Christian church has been a point of contention historically. Christianity, of course, began in Roman Judea and gradually spread westward into Asia Minor, Egypt, Illyria, Rome and eventually the entire Empire. Historically the first city to consider itself truly Christian was Antioch and, as such, the Church of Antioch^[45] there considers itself the be the first true Christian Church, deriving its authority directly from the apostles Peter and Paul. The Roman Catholic Church has traditionally argued that Saint Peter, appointed by Jesus as the head of the Church, eventually moved to Rome establishing himself and his successors in Rome as the true leaders of Christianity making the Roman Catholic Church the actual original Church. The Orthodox Church (of which the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch is a member) has argued that the scripture in no way designated Saint Peter as having unique authority over the Church and argues that all of the original Patriarchates of the Roman Empire, including Rome, trace their roots to the apostles. As such all of the Patriarchates, those of Orthodoxy as well as Rome which split from the rest during the Great Schism, are part of the original Church.

Other debates

Other debates in the Church (or in the churches depending on one's perspective) include the following.

• There are many opinions as to the ultimate fate of the souls of individuals who are not part of a particular church (i.e. members of a particular church may or may not believe that those outside their church can be saved).
• There have always been differing opinions as to the divinity of Jesus and/or His unity with God, the Father. Although historically the most significant debate in this arena was the Arianism/Trinitarianism debate in the Roman Empire, debates in this realm have occurred throughout Christian history.
• It has been debated whether or not the Christian Church is in fact a unified heavenly institution with the earthly institutions relegated to secondary status.

Criticisms

Throughout its history the Christian Church, both in terms of individual groups as well as the Church as a whole, has received many criticisms from outside detractors as well as its own members. This section discusses criticisms of the institution of the Church and its constituent congregations. For discussions of criticisms of the religion in general, see the Criticism of Christianity article.

The Church has commonly been criticized for not following the example of Jesus in terms of accepting others.^[46] Biblical passages relate stories of Jesus' accepting children, women, Gentiles, and adulterers in situations where the religious establishment and the society of the time would have rejected them. From early times the Church has been seen by some as being intolerant of outsiders and prone to fierce internal disputes. From the point of Christianity becoming the official religion of theRoman Empire in 391 it came to adopt the sanctions of the previous state pagan religion against non-Christians or those thought of as heretics, sometimes including the death penalty. The Northern Crusades against Baltic pagans and the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathar heretics used systematic violence to enforce conversion, with the approval of the Western Church.

See also

• Christendom
• Church militant and church triumphant
• Christian ecumenism
• List of Christian denominations
• Creed
• History of Christianity
• Germanic Christianity
• Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral
• Catechism of the Catholic Church

Notes

References

• University of Virginia: Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Christianity in History, retrieved May 10, 2007http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-49
• University of Virginia: Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Church as an Institution, retrieved May 10, 2007http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-50
• Christianity and the Roman Empire, Ancient History Romans, BBC Home, retrieved May 10, 2007http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/christianityromanempire_article_01.shtml
• Orthodox Church, MSN Encarta, retrieved May 10, 2007http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572657_6/Orthodox_Church.html
• Catechism of the Catholic Churchhttp://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p3.htm
• Robert G. Stephanopoulos. The Greek (Eastern) Orthodox Church in America. Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America. Retrieved on 2007-08-01. http://www.goarch.org
• Mark Gstohl, Theological Perspectives of the Reformation, The Magisterial Reformation, retrived May 10, 2007http://www.reformationhappens.com/movements/magisterial
• J. Faber, The Catholicity of the Belgic Confession, Spindle Works, The Canadian Reformed Magazine 18 (Sept. 20-27, Oct. 4-11, 18, Nov. 1, 8, 1969) - http://spindleworks.com/library/faber/008_theca.htm
• Boise State University: History of the Crusades: The Fourth Crusadehttp://crusades.boisestate.edu/4th
• United States Conference of Catholic Bishops: ARTICLE 9 "I BELIEVE IN THE HOLY CATHOLIC CHURCH": 830-831http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt1sect2chpt3art9p3.htm: Provides Roman Catholic interpretations of the term catholic
• Kenneth D. Whitehead, Four Marks of the Church, EWTN Global Catholic Networkhttp://www.ewtn.com/faith/Teachings/churb2.htm
• Unity (as a Mark of the Church), New Adventhttp://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15179a.htm
• Apostolic Succession, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05.http://www.bartleby.com/65/ap/apostSuc.html
• Gerd Ludemann, Heretics: The Other Side of Early Christianity, Westminster John Knox Press, 1st American ed edition (August 1996), ISBN-10: 0664220851, ISBN-13: 978-0664220853
• From Jesus to Christ: Maps, Archaeology, and Sources: Chronology, PBS, retrieved May 19, 2007http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/maps/cron.html