Information about Blood Sugar Regulation
Blood sugar regulation is the process by which the levels of blood sugar, primarily glucose, are maintained by the body.
There are also several other causes for an increase in blood sugar levels. Among them are the 'stress' hormones such as adrenaline, several of the steroids, infections, trauma, and of course, the ingestion of food.
When levels of blood sugar rise, whether as a result of glycogen conversion, or from digestion of a meal, a different hormone is released from beta cells found in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. This hormone, insulin, causes the liver to convert more glucose into glycogen (this process is called glycogenesis), and to force about 2/3 of body cells (primarily muscle and fat tissue cells) to take up glucose from the blood, thus decreasing blood sugar levels. Insulin also provides signals to several other body systems, and is the chief regulatory metabolic control in humans.
Diabetes mellitus type 1 is caused by insufficient or non-existent production of insulin, while type 2 is primarily due to a decreased response to insulin in the tissues of the body (insulin resistance). Both types of diabetes, if untreated, result in too much glucose remaining in the blood (hyperglycemia) and many of the same complications. Also, too much insulin and/or exercise without enough corresponding food intake in diabetics can result in low blood sugar (hypoglycemia).
Insulin is an animal hormone whose presence informs the body's cells that the animal is well fed, causing liver and muscle cells to take in glucose and store it in the form of glycogen, and
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Insulin is an animal hormone whose presence informs the body's cells that the animal is well fed, causing liver and muscle cells to take in glucose and store it in the form of glycogen, and
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)
Mechanisms of blood sugar regulation
Blood sugar levels are regulated by negative feedback in order to keep the body in homeostasis. The levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by the cells in the pancreas's Islets of Langerhans. If the blood glucose level falls to dangerous levels (as in very heavy exercise or lack of food for extended periods), the Alpha cells of the pancreas release glucagon, a hormone whose effects on liver cells act to increase blood glucose levels. They convert glycogen storage into glucose (this process is called glycogenolysis). The glucose is released into the bloodstream, increasing blood sugar levels.There are also several other causes for an increase in blood sugar levels. Among them are the 'stress' hormones such as adrenaline, several of the steroids, infections, trauma, and of course, the ingestion of food.
When levels of blood sugar rise, whether as a result of glycogen conversion, or from digestion of a meal, a different hormone is released from beta cells found in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. This hormone, insulin, causes the liver to convert more glucose into glycogen (this process is called glycogenesis), and to force about 2/3 of body cells (primarily muscle and fat tissue cells) to take up glucose from the blood, thus decreasing blood sugar levels. Insulin also provides signals to several other body systems, and is the chief regulatory metabolic control in humans.
Diabetes mellitus type 1 is caused by insufficient or non-existent production of insulin, while type 2 is primarily due to a decreased response to insulin in the tissues of the body (insulin resistance). Both types of diabetes, if untreated, result in too much glucose remaining in the blood (hyperglycemia) and many of the same complications. Also, too much insulin and/or exercise without enough corresponding food intake in diabetics can result in low blood sugar (hypoglycemia).
Hormones that influence blood glucose level
| Hormone | Tissue of Origin | Metabolic Effect | Effect on Blood Glucose |
|---|---|---|---|
| Insulin | Pancreatic β Cells | 1) Enhances entry of glucose into cells; 2) Enhances storage of glucose as glycogen, or conversion to fatty acids; 3) Enhances synthesis of fatty acids and proteins; 4) Suppresses breakdown of proteins into amino acids, of adipose tissue into free fatty acids. | Lowers |
| Somatostatin | Pancreatic D Cells | 1) Suppresses glucagon release from α cells (acts locally); 2) Suppresses release of Insulin, Pituitary tropic hormones, gastrin and secretin. | Raises |
| Glucagon | Pancreatic α cells | 1) Enhances release of glucose from glycogen; 2) Enhances synthesis of glucose from amino acids or fatty acids. | Raises |
| Epinephrine | Adrenal medulla | 1) Enhances release of glucose from glycogen; 2) Enhances release of fatty acids from adipose tissue. | Raises |
| Cortisol | Adrenal cortex | 1) Enhances gluconeogenesis; 2) Antagonizes Insulin. | Raises |
| ACTH | Anterior pituitary | 1) Enhances release of cortisol; 2) Enhances release of fatty acids from adipose tissue. | Raises |
| Growth Hormone | Anterior pituitary | Antagonizes Insulin | Raises |
| Thyroxine | Thyroid | 1) Enhances release of glucose from glycogen; 2) Enhances absorption of sugars from intestine | Raises |
Endocrinology |
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Pediatric endocrinology -
Neuroendocrinology -
Reproductive endocrinology -
Calcium metabolism -
Blood sugar regulation -
Endocrine glands
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Blood sugar is a term used to refer to the amount of glucose in the blood. Glucose, transported via the bloodstream, is the primary source of energy for the body's cells.
Blood sugar concentration, or glucose level, is tightly regulated in the human body.
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Blood sugar concentration, or glucose level, is tightly regulated in the human body.
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Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. The living cell uses it as a source of energy and metabolic intermediate.
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Negative feedback feeds part of a system's output, inverted, into the system's input; generally with the result that fluctuations are attenuated. Many real-world systems have one or several points around which the system gravitates.
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Homeostasis is the property of either an open system or a closed system, especially a living organism, to regulate the state of its internal environment so as to maintain a stable, constant condition.
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Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. The living cell uses it as a source of energy and metabolic intermediate.
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The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine systems of vertebrates<ref name="New Standard" />. It is both exocrine (secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes) and endocrine (producing several important hormones, including
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The endocrine (i.e., hormone-producing) cells of the pancreas are grouped in the islets of Langerhans. Discovered in 1869 by the German pathological anatomist Paul Langerhans, the islets of Langerhans constitute approximately 1 to 2% of the mass of the pancreas.
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Alpha cells are endocrine cells in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. They make up 15-20% of the cells in the islets. They are responsible for synthesizing and secreting the peptide hormone glucagon, which elevates the glucose levels in the blood.
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Glucagon is an important hormone involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Produced by the pancreas, it is released when the glucose level in the blood is low (hypoglycemia), causing the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose and release it into the bloodstream.
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hormone (from Greek όρμή - "to set in motion") is a chemical messenger that carries a signal from one cell (or group of cells) to another. All multicellular organisms produce hormones (including plants - see phytohormone).
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Glycogen is a polysaccharide of glucose (Glc) which functions as the primary short term energy storage in animal cells. It is made primarily by the liver and the muscles, but can also be made by the brain, uterus, and the vagina.
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Glycogenolysis is the catabolism of glycogen by removal of a glucose monomer and addition of phosphate to produce glucose-1-phosphate. This derivative of glucose is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate, an intermediate in glycolysis.
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Glycogen is a polysaccharide of glucose (Glc) which functions as the primary short term energy storage in animal cells. It is made primarily by the liver and the muscles, but can also be made by the brain, uterus, and the vagina.
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Beta cells (beta-cells, β-cells) are a type of cell in the pancreas in areas called the islets of Langerhans. They make up 65-80% of the cells in the islets.
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The endocrine (i.e., hormone-producing) cells of the pancreas are grouped in the islets of Langerhans. Discovered in 1869 by the German pathological anatomist Paul Langerhans, the islets of Langerhans constitute approximately 1 to 2% of the mass of the pancreas.
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- ''Note: This article title may be easily confused with inulin.
Insulin is an animal hormone whose presence informs the body's cells that the animal is well fed, causing liver and muscle cells to take in glucose and store it in the form of glycogen, and
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Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis, in which glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen. This process is activated by insulin in response to high glucose levels, for example after a carbohydrate containing meal.
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MUSCLE (multiple sequence comparison by log-expectation) is public domain, multiple sequence alignment software for protein and nucleotide sequences.
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Diabetes mellitus
Classification & external resources
ICD-10 E 10. –E 14.
ICD-9 250
MedlinePlus 001214
eMedicine med/546 emerg/134
MeSH C18.452.394.
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Classification & external resources
ICD-10 E 10. –E 14.
ICD-9 250
MedlinePlus 001214
eMedicine med/546 emerg/134
MeSH C18.452.394.
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Insulin resistance
Classification & external resources
eMedicine med/1173
MeSH C18.452.394.968.500
Insulin resistance
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Classification & external resources
eMedicine med/1173
MeSH C18.452.394.968.500
Insulin resistance
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Hyperglycemia
Classification & external resources
ICD-10 R73.9
ICD-9 790.6
Hyperglycemia, hyperglycaemia, or high blood sugar is a condition in which an excessive amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma.
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Classification & external resources
ICD-10 R73.9
ICD-9 790.6
Hyperglycemia, hyperglycaemia, or high blood sugar is a condition in which an excessive amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma.
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MeSH D007003 Hypoglycemia (hypoglycaemia in British English) is a medical term referring to a pathologic state produced by a lower than normal level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. The term hypoglycemia literally means "under-sweet blood" (Gr.
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- ''Note: This article title may be easily confused with inulin.
Insulin is an animal hormone whose presence informs the body's cells that the animal is well fed, causing liver and muscle cells to take in glucose and store it in the form of glycogen, and
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adipose tissue or fat is loose connective tissue composed of adipocytes. Its main role is to store energy in the form of fat, although it also cushions and insulates the body.
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Somatostatin (also known as growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH) or somatotropin release-inhibiting hormone (SRIF)) is a peptide hormone that regulates the endocrine system and affects neurotransmission and cell proliferation via interaction with
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Delta cells (δ-cells or D cells) are somatostatin producing cells.
They can be found in the stomach, intestine and the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
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They can be found in the stomach, intestine and the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
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In humans, gastrin is a hormone that stimulates secretion of gastric acid by the parietal cells of the stomach. It is released by G cells in the stomach and duodenum.
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Physiology
Genetics
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Secretin is a peptide hormone produced in the S cells of the duodenum in the crypts of Lieberkühn. Its primary effect is to regulate the pH of the duodenal contents via the control of gastric acid secretion and buffering with bicarbonate. It was the first hormone to be discovered.
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Glucagon is an important hormone involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Produced by the pancreas, it is released when the glucose level in the blood is low (hypoglycemia), causing the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose and release it into the bloodstream.
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Epinephrine (INN) (IPA: [ˌɛpɪˈnɛfrən]) or adrenaline (European Pharmacopoeia and BAN) (IPA: [əˈdrɛnələn]
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