Information about Baekje

Baekje
Baekje diadem ornament. Baekje diadem ornament.
Korean name
Hangul 백? Hanja 百? Revised Romanization Baekje McCune-Reischauer Paekche

History of Korea
Jeulmun Period Mumun Period Gojoseon, Jin Proto-Three Kingdoms:  Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye  Samhan   Ma, Byeon, Jin Three Kingdoms:  Goguryeo   Sui wars  Baekje  Silla, Gaya North-South States:  Unified Silla  Balhae  Later Three Kingdoms Goryeo  Khitan wars  Mongol invasions Joseon  Japanese invasions  Manchu invasions Korean Empire Japanese occupation  Provisional Gov't Division of Korea  Korean War North, South Korea
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Monarchs of Korea Baekje

Onjo 18 BCE–29 CE Daru 29–77 Giru 77–128 Gaeru 128–166 Chogo 166–214 Gusu 214–234 Saban 234 Goi 234–286 Chaekgye 286–298 Bunseo 298–304 Biryu 304–344 Gye 344–346 Geunchogo 346–375 Geungusu 375–384 Chimnyu 384–385 Jinsa 385–392 Asin 392–405 Jeonji 405–420 Guisin 420–427 Biyu 427–455 Gaero 455–475 Munju 475–477 Samgeun 477–479 Dongseong 479–501 Muryeong 501–523 Seong 523–554 Wideok 554–598 Hye 598–599 Beop 599–600 Mu 600–641 Uija 641–660

Baekje (October 18 BCE – August 660 CE), originally Sipje, was a kingdom in the southwest of the Korean Peninsula. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla. Baekje claimed to be a successor state to Buyeo, a state established in present-day Manchuria around the time of Gojoseon's fall. Goguryeo also claimed descendance from Buyeo, which it annexed.

Baekje was founded by Onjo, the son of Goguryeo's founder Jumong, at Wirye-sung around present-day Seoul. At its peak in the 4th century, Baekje controlled most of western Korean Peninsula, as far north as Pyongyang. It was defeated by an alliance of Silla and the Tang Dynasty in 660, becoming a part of Unified Silla.

History

Founding

According to the Samguk Sagi, Baekje was founded in 18 BCE by King Onjo, who led a group of people from Goguryeo to the southern region of the Korean peninsula, In present day Jeolla province. According to the Chinese record San Guo Zhi, during the Samhan period, one of the chiefdoms of the Mahan confederacy was called Baekje.

The Samguk Sagi provides a detailed account of Baekje's founding. Jumong had left his son Yuri in Buyeo when he left that kingdom to establish the new kingdom of Goguryeo. Jumong became King Dongmyeongseong, and had two sons, Onjo and Biryu When Yuri later arrived in Goguryeo, Jumong promptly made him the crown prince. Realizing Yuri would become the next king, Onjo and Biryu decided to head south with their people, along with ten vassals.

Onjo settled in Wiryeseong (present-day Hanam), and called his country Sipje (meaning "Ten Vassals"), while Biryu settle in Michuhol (present-day Incheon), against the vassals' advice. The salty water and marshes in Michuhol made settlement difficult, while the people of Wiryeseong lived prosperously. Later Biryu went to his brother Onjo, asking for the throne of Sipje. When Onjo refused, Biryu declared war, but lost. In shame, Biryu committed suicide, and his people moved to Wiryeseong, where King Onjo welcomed them and renamed his country Baekje ("Hundred Vassals").

King Onjo moved the capital from the south to the north of the Han river, and then south again, probably all within present Seoul, under pressure from other Mahan states. King Gaeru is believed to have moved the capital to the Bukhan Mountain Fortress in 132, probably in present-day Gwangju, to the southeast of Seoul.

Through the early centuries of the Common Era, sometimes called the Proto-Three Kingdoms Period, Baekje gradually gained control over the other Mahan tribes.

Expansion

During the reign of King Goi (234–286), Baekje became a full-fledged kingdom, as it continued consolidating the Mahan confederacy. In 249, according to the Japanese chronicle Nihonshoki, Baekje's expansion reached the Gaya confederacy to its east, around the Nakdong River valley. Baekje is first described in Chinese records as a kingdom in 345. The first diplomatic missions from Baekje reached Japan around 367 (According to the Nihon Shoki : 247).

King Geunchogo (346–375) expanded its territory to the north through war against Goguryeo, while annexing the remaining Mahan societies in the south. During Geunchogo's reign, the territories of Baekje included most of the western Korean Peninsula (except the two Pyeongan provinces), and in 371, Baekje defeated Goguryeo at Pyongyang. Baekje continued substantial trade with Goguryeo, and actively adopted Chinese culture and technology. Buddhism became the official state religion in 384.

Baekje also became a sea power and continued mutual goodwill relationships with the Japanese rulers of the Yamato period, transmitting continental cultural influences to Japan. Chinese writing system, Buddhism, advanced pottery, ceremonial burial, and other aspects of culture were introduced by aristocrats, artisans, scholars, and monks throughout their relationship.^[1]

During this period, the Han River basin remained the heartland of the country.

Ungjin period

Baekje's capital was located at Ungjin (present-day Gongju) from 475 to 538.

In the 5th century, Baekje retreated under the southward military threat of Goguryeo, and in 475, the Seoul region fell to Goguryeo. Baekje moved its capital southward to Ungjin. The Nihon Shoki says that Ungjin was given by the Emperor of Japan to the King Munju of Baekje and supposes that this area was under Japanese control. Isolated in mountainous terrain, the new capital was secure against the north but also disconnected from the outside world. It was closer to Silla than Wiryeseong had been, however, and a military alliance was forged between Silla and Baekje against Goguryeo.

Most maps of the Three Kingdoms period show Baekje occupying the Chungcheong and Jeolla provinces, the core of the country in the Ungjin and Sabi periods.

Sabi period

Baekje's capital was located at Sabi (present-day Buyeo County) from 538 to 660.

In 538, King Seong moved the capital to Sabi (in modern-day Buyeo County), and rebuilt his kingdom into a strong state. From this time, the official name of the country was Nambuyeo ("South Buyeo"), a reference to Buyeo to which Baekje traced its origins. The Sabi Period witnessed the flowering of Baekje culture, alongside the growth of Buddhism.

Seong sought to strengthen Baekje's relationship with China. The location of Sabi, on the navigable Geum River, made contact with China much easier, and both trade and diplomacy flourished during the 6th and 7th centuries. It also marked less friendly relations with Silla.

In the 7th century, with the growing influence of Silla in the southern and central Korean peninsula, Baekje began its decline.

Fall and restoration movement

In 660, the coalition troops of Silla and Tang of China attacked Baekje. The capital Sabi eventually fell, resulting in the annexation of Baekje by Silla. King Uija and his son were sent into exile in China while some of the royals probably fled to Japan.

Baekje forces attempted a brief restoration movement, but faced Silla-Tang joint forces of 130,000 men. General Boksin proclaimed Prince Buyeo Pung as the new king of Baekje, called King Peung. Baekje requested Japanese aid, and Prince Naka no Ōe, later to become Emperor Tenji, dispatched an army contingent led by Abe no Hirafu to Korea. Before the ships from Japan arrived, his forces harassed a contingent of Tang forces in Ungjin County.

In 663, Baekje revival forces and a Japanese naval fleet convened in southern Baekje to confront the Silla forces in the Battle of Baekgang. The Tang dynasty also sent 7000 soldiers and 170 ships. After five naval confrontations that took place in August 663 at Baekgang, considered the lower reaches of Tongjin river, the Silla-Tang forces emerged victorious.

Social and political structure

The establishment of a centralized state in Baekje is usually traced to the reign of King Goi, who may have first established patrilineal succession. Like most monarchies, a great deal of power was held by the aristocracy. King Seong, for example, strengthened royal power, but after he was slain in a disastrous campaign against Silla, the nobles took much of that power away from his son.

Hae clan and Jin clan were the representative royal houses who had considerable power from the early period of Baekje, and they produced many queens over several generations. The Hae clan was probably the royal house before the Buyeo clan replaced them, and both clans appear descended from the lineage of Buyeo and Goguryeo. The eight clans, Sa, Yeon, Hyeop, Hae, Jin, Guk, Mok, and Baek, were powerful nobles in the Sabi era, and these clans were recorded in Chinese records such as Tongjeon.

Central government officials were divided into sixteen ranks, the six members of the top rank forming a type of cabinet, with the top official being elected every three years. In the Sol rank, the first (Jwapyeong) through the sixth (Naesol) officials were political, administrative, and military commanders. In the Deok rank, the seventh (Jangdeok) through the eleventh (Daedeok) officials may have headed each field. Mundok, Mudok, Jwagun, Jinmu and Geuku from the twelfth to the sixteenth, may have been military administrators.

According to the Samguk Yusa, during the Sabi period, the chief minister (Jaesang) of Baekje was chosen by a unique system. The names of several candidates were placed under a rock (Cheonjeongdae) near Hoamsa temple. After a few days, the rock was moved and the candidate whose name had a certain mark was chosen as the new chief minister. Whether this was a form of selection-by-lot or a covert selection by the elite is not clear.

Language and culture

Baekje was established by immigrants from Goguryeo who spoke what could be a Buyeo language, a hypothetical group linking the languages of Gojoseon, Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje. The indigenous Samhan people, having migrated in an earlier wave from the same region, probably spoke a variation or dialect of the same language.

Baekje artists adopted many Chinese influences and synthesized them into a unique artistic tradition. Buddhist themes are extremely strong in Baekje artwork. The beatific Baekje smile found on many Buddhist sculptures expresses the warmth typical of Baekje art. In addition, Taoist and other Chinese influences are widespread. Chinese artisans were sent to the kingdom by the Liang Dynasty in 541, and this may have given rise to an increased Chinese influence in the Sabi period.

The tomb of King Muryeong (501–523), although modelled on Chinese brick tombs and yielding some imported Chinese objects, also contained many funerary objects of the Baekje tradition, such as the gold diadem ornaments, gold belts, and gold earrings. Mortuary practices also followed the unique tradition of Baekje. This tomb is seen as a representative tomb of the Ungjin period.

Delicate lotus designs of the roof-tiles, intricate brick patterns, curves of the pottery style, and flowing and elegant epitaph writing characterize Baekje culture. The Buddhist sculptures and refined pagodas reflect religion-inspired creativity. A splendid gilt-bronze incense burner (백제금동대향로) excavated from an ancient Buddhist temple site at Neungsan-ri, Buyeo County, exemplifies Baekje art.

Little is known of Baekje music, but local musicians were sent with tribute missions to China in the 7th century, indicating that a distinctive musical tradition had developed by that time.

Foreign relations

Relations with China

In 372, King Geunchogo paid tribute to the Jin Dynasty of China, located in the basin of the Yangtze River. After the fall of Jin and the establishment of Song Dynasty in 420, Baekje sent envoys seeking cultural goods and technologies.

Baekje sent an envoy to Northern Wei of Northern Dynasties for the first time in 472, and King Gaero asked for military aid to attack Goguryeo. Kings Muryeong and Seong sent envoys to Liang several times and received titles of nobility.

Tomb of King Muryeong is built with bricks according with Liang's tomb style.

Baekje's presence on the continent

Although controversial, some Chinese and Korean records indicate that Baekje territory included parts of present-day China, across the Yellow Sea.^[2][3][4][5]

According to the Book of Song, “Goguryeo came to conquer and occupy Liaodong, and Baekje came to occupy Liaoxi (遼西) (in modern Tangshan, Hebei); the place that came to be governed by Baekje was called the Jinping District, Jinping Province.”^[6] The records of Book of Jin on Murong Huang states that the alliance of Goguryeo, Baekje, and a Xianbei tribe took military action.^[7] The Samguk Sagi records that these battles occurred during the reign of King Micheon of Goguryeo (309-331).

According to the Book of Liang, “during the time of Jin Dynasty (265-420), Goguryeo conquered Liaodong, and Baekje also occupied Liaoxi and Jinping, and established the Baekje provinces.”^[8]

The Zizhi Tongjian, compiled by Sima Guang (1019-1086) of the Song Dynasty (960-1279), states that in 346, Baekje invaded Buyeo, located at Lushan, and as a result the people of the country were scattered westward toward Yan. ^[9] That year was the first year of the King Geunchogo’s reign (346-375) in Baekje.

The nearly contemporary record of the Book of Qi, as well as the later Zizhi Tongjian, state that a Northern Wei (386-534) army, comprised of 100,000 cavalry, attacked Baekje but were defeated in 488. This account is confirmed by the Samguk-sagi records on the tenth year of King Dongseong’s reign (488).^[10] Since such an army could not have travelled from northern China to the southwestern corner of the Korean peninsula without passing through the hostile and powerful Goguryeo (in the reign of King Jangsu of Goguryeo (413-491)), without being recorded in contemporary chronicles, the “Baekje” in those records must refer to Baekje presence on the other side of Goguryeo, in Liaoxi.

The Book of Qi also records that in 495 Baekje's King Dongseong requested honorary titles for the generals who repulsed the Wei attack. The titles given by the Southern Qi court carried the names of their domains that sounded like some Liaoxi areas, such as Guangling, Qinghe, Chengyang, etc.^[11]

The Territory Section of Mǎnzhōu Yuánliú Kǎo (满洲源流考, "Considerations on the Origin of Manchu") also summarizes Baekje's territories, obviously including a portion of Liaoxi:^[12]

The boundary of Baekje begins from the present-day Guangning and Jinyi provinces in the northwest and then crosses the sea in an easterly direction to arrive at the Joseon’s Hwanghae, Chungcheong, Jeolla, etc. provinces. Running east to west, Baekje’s territory is narrow; running north to south, it is long. Thus it occurs that if one looks at Baekje’s territory from the Liucheng and Beiping area, Silla is located in the southeast of Baekje, but if one looks from the Gyeongsang and Ungjin area of Baekje, Silla is located in the northeast. Baekje also borders Mohe in the north. Its royal capital has two castles at two different places in the east and west. Both castles are called “Goma.” The Book of Song says that the place governed by Baekje was called the Jinping district of the Jinping province. Tong-gao says that the the Jinping province was located between Liucheng and Beiping of the Tang period. ^[13]

Hence one of Baekje’s capitals was located in “Liaoxi,” and the other inside the "Joseon" provinces. It was during the reign of Emperor Wu of Liang that Baekje relocated its capital to southern Korea.

Both the Old and the New History of Tang say that the old Baekje territories were divided up and taken by Silla and Balhae. ^[14] If Baekje was limited to the southwestern corner of the Korean peninsula, then it would have been impossible for the Balhae to occupy any of the old Baekje territories.

The Silla scholar and alleged Sinocentrist Choi Chi-won (857-?) wrote that “Goguryeo and Baekje at the height of their strength maintained strong armies numbering one million persons, and invaded Wu and Yue in the south and You, Yan, Qi, and Lu in the north of the mainland China, making grave nuisances to the Middle Kingdom”.^[15]

According to these records, Baekje must have held the Liao-xi province for more than a hundred years.

Relations with Japan

Military assistances

To confront with the military pressure of Goguryeo and Silla, Baekje (called Kudara in Japanese, means also "100 vassals") established close relations with Japan. According to the Korean chronicle Samguk Sagi, Baekje and Silla sent their princes as hostages to the Japanese court. In exchange, Japan provided military support.^[16] The Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms and Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms cite some Baekje royal family's descendants and some nobles as dignitaries in the Japanese court, maintaining continental influence and ensuring the continuation of the Yamato alliance, as in the time of Emperor Yomei when the Buddhist temple of Horyuji was constructed. It is also known that Muryeong of Baekje, the twenty-fifth king, was born in Japan.

Some believe that Japan was conquered by Baekje. The most ancient chronicles describes the opposite.

The Chinese Book of Song of the Liu Song Dynasty, written by the Chinese Historian Shen Yue (441-513), presents the Sovereign of Japan as the ruler of Baekje, Silla and the Gaya Confederacy.

The Japanese Kojiki (or "Records of Ancient Matters" is the oldest surviving book in Japan) written in 680), and the Japanese Nihon Shoki (has proven invaluable to historians as it includes the most complete extant historical record of ancient Japan, written in 720, and is more elaborate than the Kojiki) describes the conquest of the south of the Korean peninsula.

For the Japanese the first contacts and diplomatic missions with Baekje were only established around 367 (247 for the Nihon Shoki).

The Gwanggaeto Stele, erected in 414 by King Jangsu of Goguryeo, speaks of a Japanese invasion in the Korean peninsula and that large Japanese armies were participating actively there during the late 4th and early 5th centuries. Some believe that characters were modified and the Japanese presence added. Today, most Chinese and Japanese scholars discredit the intentionally damaged stele theory based on the study of the stele itself^[17][18] and the pre–Sakō and pre-lime-marred rubbings..^[19] The Japanese military activities represent half of the stele.

According to the Samguk Sagi (Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms), written in 1145, King Asin sent his son Jeonji as a hostage in 397.^[20], and King Silseong of Silla sent his son as a hostage in 402 too.

Cultural exchanges

Ajiki(아직기) of King Gengusu period of Baekje, Danyang-i(단양이) and Go-anmu(고안무)of King Muryeong period of Baekje migrated to Japan to spread Confucianism.

The most famous noblemen and scholars that emigrated to Japan from Baekje had a Chinese ancestry, which came from the Chinese Four Commanderies of Han, in the northwest of the Korean peninsula, then through Baekje.

Among these nobles were :

• Prince Yuzuki no Kimi descendant of the Chinese Qin Dynasty, ancestor of the Hata clan, the Uzumasa clan and the Chosokabe clan, etc.
• Prince Koman-O another descendant of the Chinese Qin Dynasty, ancestor of a branch of the Hata clan and of the Koremune clan, etc.
• Prince Achi no Omi descendant of the Chinese Han Dynasty, ancestor of the Sakanoue clan, the Akizuki clan and the Tamura clan, etc.

Probably the best known immigrant scholar of that period in Japan was Wang In. Wang In was mastering confucianism and Chinese language. His decendants in Japan claimed that he was a Chinese from Lelang Commandery (BC 86 ~ AD 313) who had moved to Japan through Baekje. Yeongam of Jeolla province in Korea claims that Wangin was born in their place. It is possible that Wang In was born in the Korean peninsula with a Chinese background. To Wang In is attributed the construction of a storehouse used for preserving the presents sent from Korea to the Japanese court.

It is claimed that the capital of Chinese Lelang Commandery was near today's P'yŏngyang. South to Lelang was the Daifang Commandery situated in the Haeju's region. A flux of Chinese immigration into the Korean peninsula, continued without cessation, implanting there Chinese culture and technology.

Culture and technics spread in Japan are not specific to Baekje's own creatures : confucianism, Chinese writing system and loanwords from China, buddhism (and zen) from India etc. Scholars, architects, sculptors, potters and other immigrants contributed much to the development of Japanese culture, religion, and technology. Prince Achi no Omi from the Chinese Han Dynasty came with Chinese women skilled in weaving. Prince Yuzuki no Kimi from the Chinese Qin Dynasty is the ancestor of the Hata clan whose office was for a long time to spread the cultivation of the silkworm.

The fall of Baekje and the retreat to Japan

Some members of the Baekje nobility and royalty emigrated to Japan even before the kingdom was overthrown. After Baekje's fall in 663, Japan sent the general Abe no Hirafu with 20,000 troops and 1,000 ships to revive Baekje with Buyeo Pung (known in Japanese as Hōshō), a son of Uija of Baekje who had been an emissary to Japan. Around August of 661, 10,000 soldiers and 170 ships, led by Abe no Hirafu, arrived. Additional Japanese reinforcement, including 27,000 soldiers led by Kamitsukeno no Kimi Wakako and 10,000 soldiers led by Iohara no Kimi also arrived at Baekje in 662. This attempt, however, failed at the battle of Baekgang, and the prince was slain. Only half of the troops were able to return to Japan. According to the Nihonshoki, 400 Japanese ships were lost in the battles. The Japanese army retreated to Japan with many Baekje refugees. Buyeo Pung's younger brother Sun-gwang(Japanese : Zenkō) (善光 or 禅広) served for Japan and was given the family name Kudara no Konikishi (百濟王) by the Emperor of Japan.

First the former royal family members were treated as "foreign guests" (蕃客) and were not incorporated into the political system of Japan for some time. In 790, Emperor Kammu's mother was Takano no Niigasa, a concubine of his father Prince Shirakabe grandson of Emperor Tenji; and she was a descendant of King Muryeong of Baekje. Emperor Kammu treated the Kudara no Konikishi clan as his "relatives by marriage".

The Kings of Baekje are the ancestors of the Kudara no Konikishi clan seen above (they are also called Kudara clan, as Baekje was called Kudara in Japanese), the Ouchi clan, and the Sue clan.

Legacy

Baekje was briefly revived in the Later Three Kingdoms of Korea period, as Unified Silla collapsed. In 892, General Gyeon Hwon established Hubaekje (“Later Baekje”), based in Wansan (present-day Jeonju). Hubaekje was overthrown in 936 by King Taejo of Goryeo.

In contemporary South Korea, Baekje relics are often symbolic of the local cultures of the southwest, especially in Chungnam and Jeolla. The gilt-bronze incense burner, for example, is a key symbol of Buyeo County, and the Baekje-era Buddhist rock sculpture of Seosan Maaesamjonbulsang is an important symbol of Seosan City.

Notes

See also

• List of Baekje monarchs
• List of Korea-related topics
• History of Korea
• List of Baekje researchers
• Crown of Baekje
• List of monarchies

External links

• Baekje History Museum maintained by South Chungcheong Province of South Korea
• Buyeo National Museum
• Gongju National Museum
• Baekje Research Institute eatablished in Chungnam National University
• East Asian History by Wontack Hong, Professor Emeritus, Seoul National University