Information about Ascii

American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), generally pronounced ask-ee IPA: /ˈæski/ ([1]), is a character encoding based on the English alphabet. ASCII codes represent text in computers, communications equipment, and other devices that work with text. Most modern character encodings — which support many more characters than did the original — have a historical basis in ASCII.

Work on ASCII began in 1960. The first edition of the standard was published in 1963,^[9] a major revision in 1967, and the most recent update in 1986. It currently defines codes for 128 characters: 33 are non-printing, mostly obsolete control characters that affect how text is processed, and 95 are printable characters.

	I have also approved recommendations of the Secretary of Commerce regarding standards for recording the Standard Code for Information Interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations. All computers and related equipment configurations brought into the Federal Government inventory on and after July 1, 1969, must have the capability to use the Standard Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used.
—Lyndon B. Johnson, Memorandum Approving the Adoption by the Federal Government of a Standard Code for Information Interchange, March 11th, 1968 at Gerhard Peters (ed.), The American Presidency Project, [2]

Overview

Like other character representation computer codes, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and the glyphs (i.e., symbols) of a written language. This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information. The ASCII character encoding^[10]—or a compatible extension (see below)—is used on nearly all common computers, especially personal computers and workstations. The preferred MIME name for this encoding is "US-ASCII".^[11]

Except for a few of the ASCII control characters that prescribe some elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as markup languages, address page and document layout and formatting.

ASCII is, strictly, a seven-bit code, meaning it uses patterns of seven binary digits (a range of 0 to 127 decimal) to represent each character. When ASCII was introduced, many computers used eight-bit bytes (groups of bits), called octets, as the smallest unit of information. In seven-bit ASCII encoding, the eighth bit was commonly used as a parity bit for error checking on communication lines or for other device-specific functions. Machines that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0.^[12]

The American National Standards Institute (then called the United States of America Standards Institute or USASI) developed ASCII based on earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Circa 1956, Ivan Idelson, at Ferranti in the UK, had proposed the Cluff-Foster-Idelson coding of characters on 7 track paper tape to a British Standards committee. This eventually becomes ASCII. ASCII itself first entered commercial use in 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX (Teletype Wide-area eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit Baudot code, which was also used by the competing Telex teleprinter system. The Bell System had planned to upgrade to a six-bit code derived from the Fieldata project, which added punctuation and lower-case letters to the Baudot code, but was persuaded instead to join the American Standards Association (part of ANSI) subcommittee that had started to develop ASCII. Compared with earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII both underwent re-ordering for more convenient sorting (especially alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters. Bob Bemer introduced features such as the escape sequence.^[13] His British colleague Hugh McGregor Ross helped to popularize this work—according to Bemer, "so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the Bemer-Ross Code in Europe".^[14]

ASCII was subsequently updated and published as USASI X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986.

Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as ISO 646 that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's pound sterling (£). Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII since ASCII only suited the needs of the USA and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its own version that supported French. Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is strictly defined only by ANSI standard.

ASCII has been incorporated into the Unicode character set as the first 128 symbols, so the ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows UTF-8 to be backward compatible with ASCII, a significant advantage.

ASCII control characters

ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for control characters: codes originally intended not to carry printable information, but rather to control devices (such as printers) that make use of ASCII, or to provide meta-information about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape. For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents "backspace".

Binary	Oct	Dec	Hex	Abbr	PR[1]	CS[2]	CEC[3]	Description
000 0000	000	0	00	NUL	␀	^@	\0	Null character
000 0001	001	1	01	SOH	␁	^A		Start of Header
000 0010	002	2	02	STX	␂	^B		Start of Text
000 0011	003	3	03	ETX	␃	^C		End of Text
000 0100	004	4	04	EOT	␄	^D		End of Transmission
000 0101	005	5	05	ENQ	␅	^E		Enquiry
000 0110	006	6	06	ACK	␆	^F		Acknowledgment
000 0111	007	7	07	BEL	␇	^G	\a	Bell
000 1000	010	8	08	BS	␈	^H	\b	Backspace[4][i]
000 1001	011	9	09	HT	␉	^I	\t	Horizontal Tab
000 1010	012	10	0A	LF	␊	^J	\n	Line feed
000 1011	013	11	0B	VT	␋	^K	\v	Vertical Tab
000 1100	014	12	0C	FF	␌	^L	\f	Form feed
000 1101	015	13	0D	CR	␍	^M	\r	Carriage return[5]
000 1110	016	14	0E	SO	␎	^N		Shift Out
000 1111	017	15	0F	SI	␏	^O		Shift In
001 0000	020	16	10	DLE	␐	^P		Data Link Escape
001 0001	021	17	11	DC1	␑	^Q		Device Control 1 (oft. XON)
001 0010	022	18	12	DC2	␒	^R		Device Control 2
001 0011	023	19	13	DC3	␓	^S		Device Control 3 (oft. XOFF)
001 0100	024	20	14	DC4	␔	^T		Device Control 4
001 0101	025	21	15	NAK	␕	^U		Negative Acknowledgement
001 0110	026	22	16	SYN	␖	^V		Synchronous Idle
001 0111	027	23	17	ETB	␗	^W		End of Trans. Block
001 1000	030	24	18	CAN	␘	^X		Cancel
001 1001	031	25	19	EM	␙	^Y		End of Medium
001 1010	032	26	1A	SUB	␚	^Z		Substitute
001 1011	033	27	1B	ESC	␛	^[	\e[6]	Escape[7]
001 1100	034	28	1C	FS	␜		File Separator
001 1101	035	29	1D	GS	␝	^]		Group Separator
001 1110	036	30	1E	RS	␞	^^		Record Separator
001 1111	037	31	1F	US	␟	^_		Unit Separator
111 1111	177	127	7F	DEL	␡	^?		Delete[8][i]

The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this left was sometimes intentional (where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a data stream) and sometimes more accidental (such as what "delete" means).

Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the Teletype corporation model 33 series, which was a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage up through the 1980s, lower cost and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 (DELete) became de-facto standards. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of underscore), a noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) interpreted as "delete previous character" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually faded out.

The use of Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for "transmit off") as a handshaking signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow, and Control-Q (XON, "transmit on") to resume sending, persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output.

Code 127 is officially named "delete" but the Teletype label was "rubout". Since the original standard gave no detailed interpretation for most control codes, interpretations of this code varied. The original Teletype meaning, and the intent of the standard, was to make it an ignored character, the same as NUL (all zeroes). This was specifically useful for paper tape, because punching the all-ones bit pattern on top of an existing mark would obliterate it. Tapes designed to be "hand edited" could even be produced with spaces of extra NULs (blank tape) so that a block of characters could be "rubbed out" and then replacements put into the empty space.

As video terminals began to replace printing ones, the value of the "rubout" character was lost. DEC systems, for example, interpreted "Delete" to mean "remove the character before the cursor," and this interpretation also became common in Unix systems. Most other systems used "Backspace" for that meaning and used "Delete" as it was used on paper tape, to mean "remove the character after the cursor". That latter interpretation is the most common today.

Many more of the control codes have taken on meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (code 27), for example, was originally intended to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of "escape" encountered in URL encodings, C language strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been coopted and has eventually drifted. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence, usually in the form of an ANSI escape code. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an "out of band" character used to terminate an operation, as in the TECO and vi text editors.

The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, has also created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The clearest example of this is the newline problem on various operating systems. On printing terminals there is no question that you terminate a line of text with both "Carriage Return" and "Linefeed". The first returns the printing carriage to the beginning of the line and the second advances to the next line without moving the carriage. However, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduced unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters, plain text files on Unix systems use line feeds alone to separate lines. Similarly, older Macintosh systems, among others, use only carriage returns in plain text files. Various DEC operating systems used both characters to mark the end of a line, perhaps for compatibility with teletypes, and this de facto standard was copied in the CP/M operating system and then in MS-DOS and eventually Microsoft Windows. Transmission of text over the Internet, for protocols as Email and the World Wide Web, uses both characters. The DEC operating systems, along with CP/M, tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z (SUB) to mark the end of the actual text in the file (also done for CP/M compatibility in some cases in MS-DOS, though MS-DOS has always recorded exact file-lengths). Control-C (ETX, End of TeXt) might have made more sense, but was already in wide use as a program abort signal. UNIX's use of Control-D (EOT, End of Transmission) appears on its face similar, but is used only from the terminal and never stored in a file.

While the codes mentioned above have retained some semblance of their original meanings, many of the codes originally intended for stream delimiters or for link control on a terminal have lost all meaning except their relation to a letter. Control-A is almost never used to mean "start of header" except on an ANSI magnetic tape. When connecting a terminal to a system, or asking the system to recognize that a logged-out terminal wants to log in, modern systems are much more likely to want a carriage return or an ESCape than Control-E (ENQuire, meaning "is there anybody out there?").

The abbreviation ASCIIZ or ASCIZ refers to a null-terminated ASCII string (also known as a C string).

Non-whitespace control characters

RFC 2822 refers to NO-WS-CTL, non-whitespace control characters. These are control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed, and white space characters (see here), i.e.: decimal 1–8, 11–12, 14–31, and 127.

ASCII printable characters

Code 32, the "space" character, denotes the space between words, as produced by the large space-bar of a keyboard. Codes 33 to 126, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols.

Seven-bit ASCII provided seven "national" characters and, if the combined hardware and software permit, can use overstrikes to simulate some additional international characters: in such a scenario a backspace can precede a grave accent (which the American and British standards, but only those standards, also call "opening single quotation mark"), a backtick, or a breath mark (inverted vel).

Binary	Oct	Dec	Hex	Glyph
010 0000	040	32	20	SP
010 0001	041	33	21	!
010 0010	042	34	22	"
010 0011	043	35	23	#
010 0100	044	36	24	$
010 0101	045	37	25	%
010 0110	046	38	26	&
010 0111	047	39	27	'
010 1000	050	40	28	(
010 1001	051	41	29	)
010 1010	052	42	2A	*
010 1011	053	43	2B	+
010 1100	054	44	2C	,
010 1101	055	45	2D	-
010 1110	056	46	2E	.
010 1111	057	47	2F	/
011 0000	060	48	30	0
011 0001	061	49	31	1
011 0010	062	50	32	2
011 0011	063	51	33	3
011 0100	064	52	34	4
011 0101	065	53	35	5
011 0110	066	54	36	6
011 0111	067	55	37	7
011 1000	070	56	38	8
011 1001	071	57	39	9
011 1010	072	58	3A	:
011 1011	073	59	3B	;
011 1100	074	60	3C	<
011 1101	075	61	3D	=
011 1110	076	62	3E	>
011 1111	077	63	3F	?

Binary	Oct	Dec	Hex	Glyph
100 0000	100	64	40	@
100 0001	101	65	41	A
100 0010	102	66	42	B
100 0011	103	67	43	C
100 0100	104	68	44	D
100 0101	105	69	45	E
100 0110	106	70	46	F
100 0111	107	71	47	G
100 1000	110	72	48	H
100 1001	111	73	49	I
100 1010	112	74	4A	J
100 1011	113	75	4B	K
100 1100	114	76	4C	L
100 1101	115	77	4D	M
100 1110	116	78	4E	N
100 1111	117	79	4F	O
101 0000	120	80	50	P
101 0001	121	81	51	Q
101 0010	122	82	52	R
101 0011	123	83	53	S
101 0100	124	84	54	T
101 0101	125	85	55	U
101 0110	126	86	56	V
101 0111	127	87	57	W
101 1000	130	88	58	X
101 1001	131	89	59	Y
101 1010	132	90	5A	Z
101 1011	133	91	5B	[
101 1100	134	92	5C	\
101 1101	135	93	5D	]
101 1110	136	94	5E	^
101 1111	137	95	5F	_

Binary	Oct	Dec	Hex	Glyph
110 0000	140	96	60	`
110 0001	141	97	61	a
110 0010	142	98	62	b
110 0011	143	99	63	c
110 0100	144	100	64	d
110 0101	145	101	65	e
110 0110	146	102	66	f
110 0111	147	103	67	g
110 1000	150	104	68	h
110 1001	151	105	69	i
110 1010	152	106	6A	j
110 1011	153	107	6B	k
110 1100	154	108	6C	l
110 1101	155	109	6D	m
110 1110	156	110	6E	n
110 1111	157	111	6F	o
111 0000	160	112	70	p
111 0001	161	113	71	q
111 0010	162	114	72	r
111 0011	163	115	73	s
111 0100	164	116	74	t
111 0101	165	117	75	u
111 0110	166	118	76	v
111 0111	167	119	77	w
111 1000	170	120	78	x
111 1001	171	121	79	y
111 1010	172	122	7A	z
111 1011	173	123	7B	{
111 1100	174	124	7C	|
111 1101	175	125	7D	}
111 1110	176	126	7E	~

Structural features

• The digits 0–9 are represented with their values in binary prefixed with 0011 (this means that converting BCD to ASCII is simply a matter of taking each BCD nibble separately and prefixing 0011 to it).
• Lowercase and uppercase letters only differ in bit pattern by a single bit, simplifying case conversion to a range test (to avoid converting characters that are not letters) and a single bitwise operation. Fast case conversion is important because it is often used in case-ignoring search algorithms.
• In contrast with EBCDIC, the lowercase and uppercase letters each occupy 26 consecutive positions.

Aliases

RFC 1345 (published in June 1992) and the IANA registry of character sets (ongoing), both recognize the following case-insensitive aliases for ASCII as suitable for use on the Internet:

• ANSI_X3.4-1968 (canonical name)
• ANSI_X3.4-1986
• ASCII (with ASCII-7 and ASCII-8 variants)
• US-ASCII (preferred MIME name)
• us
• ISO646-US
• ISO_646.irv:1991
• iso-ir-6
• IBM367
• cp367
• csASCII

Of these, only the aliases "US-ASCII" and "ASCII" have achieved widespread use. One often finds them in the optional "charset" parameter in the Content-Type header of some MIME messages, in the equivalent "meta" element of some HTML documents, and in the encoding declaration part of the prolog of some XML documents.

Variants

As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII in order to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as "ASCII extensions", although some mis-apply that term to cover all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range.

The PETSCII Code used by Commodore International for their 8-bit systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963 instead of the far more common ASCII-1967.

Incompatibility vs interoperability

ISO 646 (1972), the first attempt to remedy ASCII's English language bias, created compatibility problems, since it remained a 7-bit character-set. It made no additional codes available, so it reassigned some in language-specific variants. It thus became impossible to know what character a code represented without knowing which variant to work with, and text-processing systems could generally cope with only one variant anyway.

A German, French, or Swedish, etc., programmer had to get used to
ä aÄiÜ='Ön'; ü
or similar, instead of
{ a[i]='\n'; }

Eventually, improved technology brought out-of-band means to represent the information formerly encoded in the eighth bit of each byte, freeing this bit to add another 128 additional character-codes for new assignments.

For example, IBM developed 8-bit code pages, such as code page 437, which replaced the control-characters with graphic symbols such as smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as DOS supported these code-pages, and manufacturers of IBM PCs supported them in hardware. Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular VT220 terminal.

Eight-bit standards such as ISO/IEC 8859 (derived from the DEC-MCS) and Mac OS Roman developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 (i.e., 7-bit) characters. This enabled representation of characters used in a broader range of languages. But these standards continued to suffer from incompatibilities and limitations. Still, ISO-8859-1, its variant Windows-1252 (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1), and the original 7-bit ASCII remain the most common character encodings in use today.

Unicode fix

Unicode and the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set (UCS) have a much wider array of characters, and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII basically uses 7-bit codes, Unicode and the UCS use relatively abstract "code points": non-negative integer numbers that map, using different encoding forms and schemes, to sequences of one or more 8-bit bytes. To permit backward compatibility, Unicode and the UCS assign the first 128 code points to the same characters as ASCII, and the first 256 code points to the same characters as ISO 8859-1 (Latin 1). One can therefore think of ASCII as a 7-bit encoding scheme for a very small subset of Unicode and of the UCS.

The popular UTF-8 (and UTF-7) encoding-form prescribes the use of one to four 8-bit code values for each code point character, and equates exactly to ASCII for the code values below 128. In other words, every properly encoded ASCII file is also a valid UTF-8 and UTF-7 file. Other encoding forms such as UTF-16 resemble ASCII in how they represent the first 128 characters of Unicode, but tend to use 16 or 32 bits per character, so they require conversion for compatibility.

Order

Collation of data is sometimes done in ASCII-code order rather than "standard" alphabetical order. The main deviations are:

• capitals come before lowercase letters, i.e. "Z" before "a"
• characters in extended character sets such as "é" come after "z"

The blend word ASCIIbetical is sometimes used for this order.^[15]

A refined version of this order converts uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values.

Culture

• Asteroid 3568 ASCII is named after the character encoding.

See also

• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• ASCII art
• ASCII Ribbon Campaign
• Binary
• Bob Bemer
• Control character
• Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
• Latin characters in Unicode
• Text file
• Text games
• Unicode

ASCII extensions

(where all ASCII printable characters are identical to ASCII)

• Extended ASCII
• Indian Script Code for Information Interchange (ISCII)
• ISO 8859
• Mac Roman
• UTF-8
• Vietnamese Standard Code for Information Interchange (VISCII)
• Windows code pages

ASCII variants

(where some ASCII printable characters have been replaced)

• ATASCII – Atari Standard Code for Information Interchange
• Galaksija character set – character set of Galaksija kit computer
• ISO 646
• PETSCII – PET Standard Code of Information Interchange, also known as CBM ASCII
• YUSCII – Yugoslav Standard Code for Information Interchange
• ZX Spectrum character set

Further reading

• Tom Jennings. World Power Systems:Texts:Annotated history of character codes. Retrieved on 2006-11-06.

References

9. ^ Brandel, Mary. 1963: The Debut of ASCII: History of the origin of the ASCII standard.
10. ^ International Organization for Standardization (December 1, 1975). "The set of control characters for ISO 646". Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Registry. Alternate U.S. version: [3]. Accessed August 7, 2005.
11. ^ Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (January 28, 2005). "Character Sets". Accessed August 7, 2005.
12. ^ (January 1, 1995) A Tex Primer for Scientists (in English). CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-7159-7.1995&rft.pub=CRC%20Press"> 
13. ^ Brandel, Mary. 1963: The Debut of ASCII: History of the origin of the ASCII standard. (See second-to-last paragraph.)
14. ^ Bemer meets Europe, (February, 1961) employed at IBM at that time
15. ^ ASCIIbetical.

External links

• A history of ASCII, its roots and predecessors by Tom Jennings, October 29 2004 (accessed December 17 2005)
• A pronunciation guide for ASCII characters
• Another Printable ASCII Table
• ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2002) Information Systems - Coded Character Sets - 7-Bit American National Standard Code for Information Interchange (7-Bit ASCII)
• ASCII to 8-bit binary converter and source code
• ASCII to ASCII CODE converter and source code
• ASCII Chart, how to send documents "in ASCII", etc
• Convert PDF, PostScript, WMF and EMF to ASCII
• Interactive AJAX-style ASCII (and Unicode) Decoder Table
• Online Encoder/Decoder for ASCII, HEX, Binary, Base64, etc with MD2, MD4, MD5, SHA1+2, CRC, and other hashing algorithms
• Printable ASCII Table
• The ASCII subset of Unicode
• Thoughts on the Past and Future with computer pioneer Bob Bemer

ASCII is the "American Standard Code for Information Interchange" computer text encoding standard.

ASCII may also refer to:

• ASCII (magazine), a computer magazine published in Japan
• ASCII (company), the Japanese company that publishes ASCII

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This chart shows concisely the most common way in which the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is applied to represent the English language.

See International Phonetic Alphabet for English for a more complete version and Pronunciation respelling for English for phonetic
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A character encoding consists of a code that pairs a sequence of characters from a given character set (sometimes referred to as code page) with something else, such as a sequence of natural numbers, octets or electrical pulses, in order to facilitate the storage of text in
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The modern English alphabet consists of the 26 letters^[1] of the Latin alphabet:

Majuscule Forms (also called uppercase or capital letters)
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Minuscule Forms (also called
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character is a unit of information that roughly corresponds to a grapheme, grapheme-like unit, or symbol, such as in an alphabet or syllabary in the written form of a natural language.

An example of a character is a letter, numeral, or punctuation mark.
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computer is a machine which manipulates data according to a list of instructions.

Computers take numerous physical forms. The first devices that resemble modern computers date to the mid-20th century (around 1940 - 1941), although the computer concept and various machines
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Telecommunication is the transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of communication. In modern times, this process typically involves the sending of electromagnetic waves by electronic transmitters, but in earlier times telecommunication may have involved the use of
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A character encoding consists of a code that pairs a sequence of characters from a given character set (sometimes referred to as code page) with something else, such as a sequence of natural numbers, octets or electrical pulses, in order to facilitate the storage of text in
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In computing and telecommunication, a control character or non-printing character is a code point (a number) in a character set that does not in itself represent a written symbol.
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Lyndon Baines Johnson (August 27, 1908 – January 22, 1973), often referred to as LBJ, was the thirty-sixth President of the United States (1963–1969). Johnson served a long career in the U.S.
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In communications, a code is a rule for converting a piece of information (for example, a letter, word, or phrase) into another form or representation, not necessarily of the same type.
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glyph is the shape given in a particular typeface to a specific grapheme or symbol.

The term for the abstract entity represented by a glyph is character: a typographical character may be a grapheme (an element of a writing system), but also a numeral, a punctuation
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A digital system is one that uses discrete values (often electrical voltages), representing numbers or non-numeric symbols such as letters or icons, for input, processing, transmission, storage, or display, rather than a continuous range of values (ie, as in an analog system).
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personal computer (PC) is a computer whose original sales price, size, and capabilities make it useful for individuals.

It is unknown who coined the phrase with the intent of a small affordable computing device but John W.
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workstation, such as a Unix workstation, RISC workstation or engineering workstation, is a high-end desktop or deskside microcomputer designed for technical applications.
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Mime or pantomime is a theatrical medium or performance art, involving the acting out of a story by a mime artist through body motions, without use of speech.

History

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markup language provides a way to combine a text and extra information about it. The extra information, including structure, layout, or other information, is expressed using markup, which is typically intermingled with the primary text.
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BIT is an acronym for:

• Bannari amman Institute of Technology
• Bangalore Institute of Technology
• Beijing Institute of Technology
• Benzisothiazolinone
• Bilateral Investment Treaty
• Bhilai Institute of Technology - Durg

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byte (pronounced /baɪt/) is a unit of measurement of information storage, most often consisting of eight bits. In many computer architectures it is a unit of memory addressing.
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In computing, an octet is a grouping of eight bits.

In France, French Canada and Romania, the word octet usually means byte; a megabyte (MB) is called a megaoctet in France, Romania and also French Canada. Bit and Byte are homophones in the French language.
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A parity bit is a binary digit that indicates whether the number of bits with value of one in a given set of bits is even or odd. Parity bits are used as the simplest error detecting code.

There are two types of parity bits: even parity bit and odd parity bit.
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American National Standards Institute or ANSI (IPA pronunciation: [ænsiː]) is a private nonprofit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes,
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A teleprinter (teletypewriter, Teletype or TTY for TeleTYpe/TeleTYpewriter) is a now largely obsolete electro-mechanical typewriter which can be used to communicate typed messages from point to point through a simple electrical
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Ferranti or Ferranti International plc by the time of its collapse, was a major UK electrical engineering and equipment firm, known primarily for defence electronics and power grid systems.
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Motto
"Dieu et mon droit" ^[2]   (French)
"God and my right"
Anthem
"God Save the Queen" ^[3]
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British Standards are the national standards of the UK. The standards body which produces them is BSI British Standards, a division of BSI Group. It is incorporated under a Royal Charter and is formally designated as the National Standards Body (NSB) for the UK.
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American Telephone & Telegraph Company, in its later years simply AT&T Corporation, provided voice, video, data, and Internet telecommunications and professional services to businesses, consumers, and government agencies.
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TWX may refer to:

• Teletypewriter eXchange (TWX), a telegraphy system.
• Time Warner's stock ticker symbol.

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The Baudot code, named after its inventor Émile Baudot, is a character set predating EBCDIC and ASCII, and the root predecessor to International Telegraph Alphabet No 2 (ITA2), the teleprinter code in use until the advent of ASCII.
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Telex may refer to:

• Telex, a communications network
• Teleprinter, the device used on the above network
• Telex (band), a Belgian pop group

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